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tihxary  of  Che  trheolo^ical  ^tminavy 

PRINCETON  •  NEW  JERSEY 

Presented  by  Fres.  Patton 

BX  8931  .K4  1888  i 

Kerr,  Robert  P.  1850-1923.   | 
The  people's  history  of 
Presbyterianism  in  all  ages 


THE  PEOPLE'S 


History  of  Presbyterianism 


IN    ALL    AGES 


I 
EOBEET    P.    KEEK,    D.  D., 

AUTHOE  OF  "PkESBYTEEIANISM  FOE  THE  PEOPLE. 


RICHMOND,    VA.: 

Peesbyterian  Committee  of  Publication. 
188  8. 


COPYKIGHT 
BY 

J  AS.    K.    Hazen,    D.   D. 

188  8. 


Printed  bt 
Whittet  &  Shepperson, 
Richmond,  Va. 


Bound  by 
Jenkins  &  Walthall, 

KiC'HMOND    VA. 


TO    THE    LATE 

JOHN    POOLE    KERR, 

t'F/io  7oas  born  and  reared  in  Scotland,  in  the  town  of  Sanquhar,  Dum- 
friesshire— a  place  celebrated  for  its  association  with  the  two  famous 
"■Sanquhar  Declarations''''  of  the  Covenajiters,  fj'om  zvhich  noble 
race  he  came.     His  life,  the  greater  part  of  which  was  spent 
in  the  United  States,  was  one  of  devotion  to  righteous- 
ness and  of  communion  with  God.      Its  influence 
still  remains  in  the  hearts  of  all  zvho  knew 
him,  as  an  inspiration  to  duty  and  the 
love  of  truth.      This  Book,  a  history 
of  the  principles  to  which  he  gave 
his  labors  and  prayers, 
is  tenderly 
Dedicated   to    his    Memory 
By   a    Devoted    Son, 

THE    AUTHOR. 


PREFACE. 


BOOKS  are  written  to  be  read,  not  to  lie  on  dusty 
shelves.  But  this  is  a  busy  age,  and  most  per- 
sons will  not  take  time  to  read  extensive  treatises. 
The  people  call  for  short  sermons,  short  prayers,  and 
short  books.  Nor  is  this  demand  without  reason ;  for 
Hfe  itself  is  short,  and  there  is  much  to  do. 

The   present  volume  has  been  prepared  Avith  the 
design  of  placing  ^vithin  the  reach  of  every  one  a  brief 
history  of  Presbyterianism,  at  small  cost  to  the  reader, 
both  of  money  and  time.     On  this  account  it  has  been 
necessary  to  omit  a  gi-eat  deal  of  interesting  and  in- 
structive matter.     It  is  better  that   the  many  should 
know  the  principles  and  outline  of  a  history,  with  its 
'    most  important  events  and  characters,  than  that  the 
few  should  know  everything  connected  with  it.     The 
f  feu^,  however,  have  their  histories  of  Presbyterianism, 
thorough    and   voluminous,    covering    every    age    and 
'    country  in  which  our  church  has  had  an  existence; 
5 


b  PREFACE. 

and  those  who  have  time  for  extended  research  will 
find  no  lack  of  material. 

So  far  as  is  known,  this  is  the  first  comprehensive 
history  of  Presb3rterianism,  in  all  ages  and  countries, 
in  one  work.  It  is  a  general  survey,  of  the  operations 
and  influence  of  a  principle  and  an  institution  which 
have  accomplished  more  for  the  welfare  of  mankind 
than  all  other  agencies,  except  the  Gospel,  for  which 
it  has  been  a  fitting  vehicle.  May  the  people  read 
it,  and  the  blessing  of  God  rest'  upon  it ! 

K.  P.  K. 


C  0  N  T  E  N  T  S. 


CHAPTER    I. 

The  Origin  of  Presbyterianism,         .         .         . 

CHAPTER    IL 

The  Presbyterian  Principle  in  Other  Churches, 


Page. 


19 


CHAPTER    III. 

Presbyterianism  in  the  Early  Days  of  the  Christian 
Era 


24 


CHAPTER    IV. 

The  Dark  Ages. — Twilight  with  Two  Stars, 


29 


CHAPTER    V. 


The  Waldenses, 


32 


CHAPTER    VI. 

^xiE  Northwestern  Star. — The  Culdees, 


46 


CHAPTER    VII. 

The  Night  of  Popery  and  the  Morning  Twilight. 
Augustine  and  Huss, 


55 


8  CONTENTS. 


Page. 


CHAPTER   yilL 

The  Ascending  Day  of  the  Reformation,  .         .64 

CHAPTER    IX. 

The  Reformation  in  Eastern  Switzerland — Zwingli,         69 

CHAPTER    X. 

The  Spiritual  Republic  Established. — John  Calvin 

V 

AND  Geneva,    .         .         .         .         .         .         .         76 

CHAPTER    XL 

The  Mighty  Conflict  in  France,        ....         87 

CHAPTER    XII. 

The  Extension  of  Liberty  and  Truth  to  Holland,  .         95 

CHAPTER    XIIL 

Glimpses  East  of  the  Alps  and  the  Rhine,        .         .       100 

CHAPTER   XIV. 

^   Scotland. — The  Returning  Day,        .         .         .         .104 

CHAPTER    XV. 

^/  John  Knox,  the  Reformer,  .....       .<^ 


CHAPTER    XVL 

A  Long  Conflict,      .         .         .         .         .         .         .126 


CONTENTS.  9 

»  '  Pace. 

CHAPTER    XVIL 

My  Kingdom  is  not  of  this  AVorld."^ — The  Final 

Establishment  of  this  Principle  in  Scotland,      .       139 

CHAPTER    XVIIL 

Presbyterianism  in  England,      .....       150 

CHAPTER    XIX. 

Presbyterianism  in  Wales,  .         .         .         .         .155 


CHAPTER   XX. 

Presbyterianism  in  the  Ends  of  the  Earth,       .         .       162 

CHAPTER    XXI. 

Old  Principles  in  a  New  World,       .         .         .         .170 

CHAPTER   XXII. 

Presbyterianism  in  America  before  the  Revolution,         180 

CHAPTER    XXIII. 

From  the  First  General  Assembly  in  the  United 
States  to  the  Old  and  NE^v  School  Division 
OF  1837, 188 


fj  CHAPTER    XXIV. 

yTHE  Great  Disruption  in  Church  and  Nation,  .       196 

CHAPTER    XXV. 

American  Presbyterianism  after  the  AVar  of  Seces- 
sion,    215 


10  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    XXVI. 

The   Presbyterian    Church   and    its    Sisters   in   the 

United  States,  .......       227 


CHAPTER    XXVII. 
Untsersal  Presbyterianism,         .....       285 

CHAPTER    XXVIII. 
The  Spirit  of  Presbyterianism,  ....       242 


Notes  and  Statistics  of  the  Reformed  Churches 
THROuanouT  the  World  holding  the  Presbyte- 
rian System,        .......       247 


THE   PEOPLE'S 

HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIANISM 

IN   ALL   AGES. 


CHAPTEK  I. 

The  Origin  of  Presbyterianism. 

THE  principle  of  Presbyterianism  begins  with  the 
earhest  organization  of  the  chiirch  of  God,  and 
runs  through  its  entire  history,  nntil  the  end  is  reached 
in  the  Apocalypse,  where  John  saw  four-and-twenty 
elders  sitting  round  about  the  throne,  with  crowns  on 
their  heads,  in  heaven.  This  is  only  saying  of  our 
church  what  is  claimed  for  its  own  by  every  denomina- 
tion, that  it  is  nearest  to  the  church  of  the  Bible. 
Episcopahans,  BaiDtists,  Methodists,  CongregationaHsts, 
and  all  others,  claim  this  for  themselves;  nor  could 
they  claim  less.  Every  denomination  thinks  it  sees  it- 
',self  in  the  Scriptures ;  and  it  would  have  no  right  to 
^xist  if  it  did  not.  In  point  of  fact,  every  denomination 
Idoes  see  itself  in  the  Scriptures,  for  if  it  be  Christian,  it 
lis  a  part  of  "the  Holy  Catholic  Church,"  which  has  ex- 
isted in  all  ages,  and  shall  endure  forever.  Each  Chris- 
tian denomination  contains  enough  of  the  essential 
elements  of  the  church  to  make  it  a  constituent  part  of 
that  body  of  which  Christ  is  the  head. 
9 


10  THE  people's  HISTOP.Y 

The  (livision  of  the  ehiirch  into  denomhiations  is 
probably  not  a  disadvantage.  We  are  a  check  upon 
one  another,  and  friendly  competition  stimulates  zeal. 
There  need  not  be  union,  but  there  should  be  unity. 
We  should  love  one  another,  show  reciprocal  respect, 
and  by  the  exchange  of  pulpits,  by  intercommunion,  by 
co-operation  in  worship  and  work,  recognize  each 
other's  full  membership  in  the  kingdom  of  Christ. 
That  this  is  not  done  by  all  is  the  shame  of  Christi- 
anity, and  is  perhaps  the  greatest  obstacle  to  the  out- 
pouring of  the  Holy  Ghost,  by  which  the  final  conver- 
sion of  the  world  is  to  be  accomplished.  Great  pro- 
gress has  undoubtedly  been  made  during  the  last 
quarter  of  a  century  in  the  direction  of  some  such 
unity.  The  best  illustration  of  the  unity  and  variety  of 
the  church's  parts  is  found  in  man  himself.  "We  have 
many  members  in  one  body,  and  all  members  have  not 
the  same  office :  so  we,  being  many,  are  one  body  in 
Christ,  and  every  one  members  one  of  another."  "  If 
the  whole  body  were  an  eye,  where  were  the  hearing? 
If  the  whole  were  hearing,  where  were  the  smelling?" 
Therefore  the  Episcopalians  should  not  say  to  the 
Presb}i;erians,  we  have  no  need  of  you ;  nor  the  Bap- 
tists to  the  Methodists,  we  have  no  need  of  you.  "  Now 
ye  are  the  body  of  Christ,  and  members  in  pai-ticular." 
There  is  less  of  the  spirit  of  disunity  than  in  former 
years.  The  "members"  of  Christ's  body  are  yearning 
for  one  another.  When  this  desire  shall  be  accom- 
plished, the  church  ^^ill  stand  crowned  with  strength 
and  beauty  before  the  world,  and  then  may  come  a 
mighty  pentecostal  baptism  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  fire, 
followed  bv  the  conversion  of  vast  multitudes.     Might 


OF  rRESBYTERIANISM.  11 

it  not  bring  in  the  complete  conquest  of  tlie  Avorlcl  to 
Christ?  Let  iis  remember  his  last  great  sacerdotal 
prayer  before  the  atonement :  "  That  they  all  may  be 
one :  as  thou,  Father,  art  in  me,  and  I  in  thee,  that  they 
also  may  be  one  in  us,  that  the  world  may  helieve  that 
thou  hast  sent  iner 

This  would  not  be  accomplished  by  the  abandonment 
of  our  several  denominational  organizations,  but  by  a 
loving  umty  that  shall  make  us  one  in  Christ.  A  great 
deal  of  the  talk  about  universal  union,  or  consolidation, 
on  the  part  of  some  denominations,  simply  means  that 
all  should  come  over  and  join  them.  We  should  pray 
to  be  delivered  from  such  uncharitable  charity.  The 
Presbyterian  Church  does  not  profess  to  be  the  whole 
of  the  church,  nor,  on  the  other  hand,  does  it  propose 
to  apologize  for  its  existence ;  but  it  does  claim  to  be 
the  largest  Protestant  body  on  earth,  and  that  in  its 
organization  the  great  principles  of  the  Scripture  plan 
of  a  church  are  more  completely  elaborated  than  in  any 
other,  at  the  same  time  acknowledging  the  full  church- 
ship  of  all  evangelical  denominations ;  for  no  particular 
kind  of  government  is  necessary  to  the  existence  of  a 

f  church,  but    only  the   proclamation  of  the  gospel   of 

1  Christ. 

Presbyterianism  is  not  a  form,  but  a  principle.  The 
forms,  however,  which  result  fi'om  the  application  of 
this  principle,  whilst  varying  mth  varied  circumstances, 

/yet  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  each  other.  There 
are  three  principles  of  church  government :  (1),  Epis- 
copal, a  government  by  bishops,  including  the  Protes- 
tant Episcopal,  Methodist  Episcopal,  and  Catholic 
churches;  (2),  Congregational,  a  government  by  con- 


12  THE  people's  HISTOEY 

gregations,  inclnding  tlie  Congregational  or  Indepen- 
dent, and  Baptist  cliurclies ;  and  (3),  The  Presbyterian, 
a  government  by  Presbyteries,  including  all  Presby- 
terian and  Reformed  chnrclies  tlirougliout  the  world. 
The  Lutherans  are  not  wholly  Presbj'terian,  but  contain 
elements  of  Episcopacy  and  Congregationalism  as  well 
as  Presb^-tery,  though  more  of  the  latter.  In  civil 
government  there  are  two  great  systems,  the  monarch- 
ical, or  oligarchical,  and  the  republican ;  these  corres- 
pond substantially  with  Episcopal  and  Presbyterian. 
There  is  and  can  be  no  such  thing  as  a  congi-egational 
or  purely  democratic  government  in  the  state,  if  it  be 
composed  of  a  large  number  of  citizens.  It  is  a  govern- 
ment by  the  people  ^^itliout  any  rulers,  or  through  mere 
proxies. 

Let  us  have  a  clear  conception  as  to  what  a  republi- 
can government  really  is.  It  is  a  system  in  which  the 
people  elect  their  rulers,  wdio  are  not  mere  proxies,  but 
real  representatives,  empowered  to  govern,  and  who  are 
amenable,  not  to  the  people  directly,  but  to  the  wiU  of 
the  sovereign  people,  as  it  is  expressed  in  the  constitu-  \ 
tion  which  they  ordained,  either  directly  or  by  their 
representatives.  But  Presbyterian,  or  ecclesiastical 
repubhcanism,  differs  from  that  in  the  civil  government ; 
in  the  latter  all  power  comes  from  the  people,  the 
sovereign  people,  Avho  ordain  the  constitution,  and  elect 
their  representatives  to  rule  under  it ;  but  in  the  church 
there  are  no  sovereign  people  to  ordain  a  constitution.  I 
The  constitution  of  the  church  comes  from  Christ,  in 
whom  the  sovereignty  inheres.  The  people  have  the 
privilege  of  electing  their  officers;  these  officers,  how- 
ever, when  elected,  are  not  responsible  to  the  electors, 


OF  PEESBYTERIANISM.  13 

but  to  tlie  constitution  wliicli  Christ  has  ordained.  The 
constitution  of  the  church  is  the  Word  of  God,  of  which 
all  church  laws  and  Confessions  of  Faith  are  but  inter- 
pretations. They  are  to  be  obeyed  by  those  who 
voluntarily  accept  them  as  hiteriwetatioyis  or  ivorking 
constitutions,  but  liable  to  change  as  history  advances. 
The  Bible  is  the  revelation  of  the  divine  sovereignty 
and  to  this  infallible  standard  must  all  matters,  legisla- 
tive, judicial  and  administrative,  be  brought  for  final 
settlement.  This  is  the  unchangeable  constitution  of 
the  Christian  Republic,  and  never  to  be  amended.  Its 
Divine  Author  said:  "Heaven  and  earth  shall  pass 
away,  but  my  words  shall  not  pass  away." 

Just  here  it  should  be  plainly  declared  that  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  holds  that  any  body  of  people,  to- 
gether with  their  children,  organized  for  work  and  wor- 
ship and  professing  the  true  religion,  is  a  part  of  the 
visible  church  of  God,  whatever  form  of  government 
they  maintain,  though  for  their  highest  efficiency  they 
should  adopt  the  Presbyterian  principle.  The  reason 
ifor  this  is  that,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  doctrines  of 
/the  gospel  we  have  a  divine  command,  but  for  Presby- 
terian church  government  only  the  Scripture  examjyle. 
To  preach  the  gospel  is  the  church's  charter ;  the  kind 
\of  rules  by  which  she  does  it  is  of  great  importance,  as 
jthis  book  is  designed  to  show,  but  not  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  its  existence  as  a  church.  The  preaching  of  the 
/gospel  is  Vjhat  to  do  ;  church  government  is  liow  to  do 
it.  It  may  be  done  with  greater  or  less  efficiency  under 
any  kind  of  government.  This  is  the  liberal  spirit  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church. 

Regarded  from  the  divine  standpoint,  the  church  is  a 


1 


14  THE  TEOPLE'k  history 

kingdom,  having  Christ  for  its  head ;  but,  as  a  visible 
body,  in  its  human  administration  it  is  a  republic.  In 
the  light  of  all  that  has  gone  before,  let  us  venture  upon 
a  definition  of  our  principle  of  government : 

Presbyterianism  is  that  system  in  which  the  church  •  I 

15  REGARDED  AS  A  SPIRITUAL  ^COMMONWEALTH,  WHOSE  ONLY 

HEAD  IS  Christ  ;  and  which  he  governs  through  repre- 

llSENTATIYE  ELDERS,  CALLED  BY  HIS  SPIRIT  AND  ELECTED  BY 
llHIS  PEOPLE,  AND  ALL  OF  EQUAL  AUTHORITY,  WHICH  IS  EXER- 
CISED BY  THEM   ONLY  WHEN   OP.GANIZED  INTO   AN   ASSEMBLY 
OR  COURT. 

These  representatives  are  called  elders,  or  presbyters,' 
and  are  of  two  classes:  ruling  elders,  who  only  rule, 
and  teaching  elders,  or  preachers,  who  both  rule  and 
teach.  The  assemblies  of  the  church  are  usually  com- 
posed of  equal  numbers  of  ruling  and  teaching  elders, 
except  in  case  of  the  lowest,  called  the  Session  or  Con-^' 
sistory,  where  all  except  the  presiding  ofiicer,  or  mod- 
erator, are  ruling  elders.  The  teaching  elders  must  be 
set  apart  for  this  additional  function  by  an  assembly  or 
coui*t. 

These  assemblies  are  arranged'  in  the  scale  of  a  regu- ' 
lar  gradation,  from  the  Session  or  Consistory,  through 
the  Presl3ytery  or  Chassis,  and  Synod  or  Particular,. 
Synod,  to  the  General  Assembly  or  General  Synod,  as! 
they  are  named  in  English  or  non-English  speakings 
countries.  They  are  all  Presbyteries,  because  com-'f 
posed  of  presbyters,  but  there  has  been  a  distribution 
of  duties,  each  one  having  its  own  province  strictly  de- 
fined. It  is  the  duty  of  each  higher  court  to  review  the 
proceedings  of  the  next  lower,  and  cases  may  be  car- 
ried for  trial  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest. 


H 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  15 

This  great  principle  of  cliurch  <^^<:)yernment,  wliicli  is 
usually  associated  with  its  tAviii  sister,  Calviuistic  doc- 
trine, has  come  down  from  the  earliest  times  an  prac- 
tised in  that  church  the  history  of  which  constitutes 
the  larger  portion  of  the  Scriptures.  The  change  of  the 
Sabbath  from  the  seventh  day  of  the  week  to  the  first, 
is  nowhere  coinmanded,  but  it  w^as  the  J!;>y«c'^vV'<?  of  the 
apostolic  church  to  keep  the  day  on  which  the  Lord 
arose  from  the  dead ;  therefore  we  observe  the  first  day. 
In  like  manner  we  maintain  Presbyterianism  liecause 
we  have  the  example  of  the  church  of  the  Bible. 

The  church  first  existed  in  the  family,  the  father  be- 
ing the  representative  head.     As  families  multiplied, 
their  several  heads,  or  elders,  would  naturally  form  a 
ruling  assembly ;  l)ut  l)ecause  a  loody  composed  of  all 
the  heads  of  families  in  an  extensive  community  would 
be  too  large  for  general  efficiency,  the  people  would 
elect  from  the  number  of  older  {elder)  men  certain  ones 
conspicuous  for  piety  and  wisdom  to  be  their  representa- 
tive rulers.     They  would  then  have  a  Presbytery.     In 
a  simple  state  of  society  this  body  would  have  charge 
of  both  religious  and  secular  affairs,  but  as  society  ad- 
vances a  necessity  arises  for  the  separation  of  the  affairs 
(of  church  and  state.      In  Old  Testament  times  they 
I  w^ere  united,  but  were  separated  under  the  new  dispen- 
i  sation. 

I      We  have  no  record  in  the  Scriptures  of  the  origin  of 
jgovernment,  sacred  or  secular;  but  when  Moses  came 
upon  the  stage  of  history  in  Egypt,  w^e  find  Presbyte- 
rianism in  full  force  among  the  Israelites.     God  com- 
Imanded  him  not  to  organize  anew  the  nation  or  the 
church,  but  to  "go  and  gather  the  elders  of  Israel  to- 


16  THE  people's  history 

getlier,"  and   deliver  to  them   liis   message.     He   was 
divinely  appointed  to  lead  the  people  out  of  bondage, 
l)ut  he  was  to  nse  the  system  of  government  already  in 
operation  among  them.     This  was  a  divine  endorse- 
ment of  the  government  by  assemblies  of  representative 
elders.     In  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  the  present  day,  j| 
if  a  man  feels  that  God  has  called  him  to  be  a  minister,    f 
the   "elders  of  the  people"  must,  first  sit  in  judgment   ,! 
upon  his  credentials  and  qualifications.     As  cares  mul-  / . 
tiplied  during  the  exodus,  Moses  applied  the  represen-  i 
tative  principle  in  the  organization  of  a  coui*t  of  seventy  ) 
elders,  very  like  a  General  Assembly,  to  preside  over   j 
the  government  of  the  whole  people.     A  similar  body  a 
in  the  time  of  Christ  was  called  the  Sanhedrim.     The   ^ 
word   "elder,"  signifying  "ruler,"  is  used  in  the  Old  I 
Testament  about  one  hundred  times,   and  over  sixty  j  | 
times  in  the  New.     Their  duties  were  similar  to  those 
of  elders  now,  a(ln}inistrat(ve  ^nd  judicial,  to  administer! 
government  and  to  decide  cases.     The   administrativej' 
function  is  seen   in   their  coming  together  to  receivej,'    , 
Moses;  and  the  judicial   (Deut.  xix.   11),  where  thej\ 
were. instructed  to  try  men  for  crime. 

AVlieii  the  priesthood  was  introduced  it  did  not  super- 
sede the  eldership.  It  was  a  part  of  the  ceremonial 
system  of  worship,  of  which  the  temple  afterwards  be- 
came the  representative.  The  priest's  business  was  t(^ 
offer  sacrifices  and  to  intercede  for  the  people,  as  a  type  j 
of  Christ.  But  when  the  Messiah  came,  and  the  typefi 
were  fulfilled,  there  was  no  further  need  for  priest  or 
sacrifice  to  remind  men  that  he  was  coming  and  to  illus- 
trate his  mission ;  so  the  veil  of  the  temple  was  rent  ip 
twain  when  Christ  said,  "It  is  finished!"     Then  the 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  17 

gorgeous  vision  of  priest,  sacrifice,  and  temple  passed 
away,  God  destroying,  through  the  mihtjiry  power  of 
Eome,  every  vestige  of  the  place  they  had  so  long  made 
glorious  in  the  eyes  of  all  who  looked  for  salvation. 
But  there  remained  still  intact  the  old  government  by 
representative  assemblies  of  elders.  In  each  synagogue 
there  was  a  bench  of  elders.  The  synagogue  elders 
were  responsible  to  the  Sanhedrim  at  Jerusalem,  as  we 
learn  from  The  Life  ofJosejyhns^  Section  xii.,  and  from 
other  sources. 

This  was  Presb}d]erianism,  a  government  by  represen- 
tative assemblies  of  elders.  The  men  who  administered 
the  government  were  often  corrupt,  but  the  principle 
was  sound,  and  was  never  called  in  question  in  the 
Scriptures.  The  church  has  existed  from  the  begin- 
ning, and  it  has  always  exhibited,  either  in  the  whole 
or  in  a  part,  this  principle  of  church  government.  Pres- 
byterianism  is  a  principle  susceptible  of  endless  varety 
of  development  and  appHcation.  It  is  not  a  form,  nor 
an  organization,  nor  a  name.  The  forms  and  names 
have  changed  continually.  It  may  have  one  assembly 
or  a  hundred ;  they  may  be  called  Sanhedrims,  General 
Assemblies,  General  Synods,  or  may  be  distinguished 
by  any  other  names.  Any  Christian  Church  maintain- 
ing the  principle  of  government  by  representative  as- 
semblies of  elders  is  Presbyterian.  But  it  is  only  called 
Presbyterian  in  English-speaking  countries,  and  not 
vdways  in  these.  In  most  other  countries  it  is  called 
the  " Keformed  Church"  ;  as,  for  example,  the  Reformed 
Church  of  France  and  the  Reformed  Church  of  Holland. 
There  are  also  several  branches  of  the  Reformed  Church 
Im  the  United  States.     In  Italy  it  is  called  the  "Wal- 


18  THE  people's  history  OF  PRESBYTERIANISM. 

clensian,"  and  tliere  is  also  the  "  Free  Church  "  of  Italy. 
One  of  its  l)ranches  in  Great  Britain  is  called  "The 
Cliurch  of  Scotland." 

The  various  members  of  the  great  family  of  Presby- 
terian chnrches,  about  sixty-live  in  numl)er,  find  their 
unity  of  government  and  doctrine  realized  in  the  organi- 
zation which  embraces  them  all — "The  Alliance  of  the 
Reformed  Churches  throughout  the  World  holding  the 
Presbyterian  System."  In  this  they  aU  meet,  by  their 
representatives,  once  in  three  years. 


CHAPTER  II. 

The  Presbyterian  Principle  in  Other  Churches. 

FROM  the  beginning  tliere  have  been,  as  before  in- 
timated, two  great  principles  of  government  con- 
tending for  the  mastery.  They  are  monarchy  and  re- 
pubhcanism.  The  conflict  of  these  constitutes  the 
greater  part  of  the  story  of  the  race ;  for  the  records  of 
peace  have  not  been  written,  but  the  annals  of  war  is  the 
history  of  mankind.  The  question  to  he  solved  has 
ever  been.  Who  are  the  masters ;  are  they  the  people 
or  their  rulers  ?  Under  a  pure  monarchy  the  people  are 
the  servants ;  but  under  a  pure  republic  the  servants  are 
those  appointed  by  popular  suffrage  to  perform  those 
duties  which,  because  they  can  only  be  done  efficiently 
by  a  few,  make  it  necessary  that  some  be  selected  to 
hold  office,  and  "public  office  is  a  public  trust."  Self- 
government  has  the  endorsement  of  God  in  the  fact 
that  as  he  constituted  the  nation  of  Israel  it  was  based 
on  that  principle,  and  when,  at  their  request,  God  gave 
them  a  monarch} ,  it  was  with  a  curse  attached  to  it, 
wdiich  w^as  terribly  fulfilled.  But  even  then  self-govern- 
ment was  maintained  in  their  religious  institutions. 
;  Read  1  Sam.  viii.  for  an  account  of  the  revolution  in 
the  government:  "The  elders  of  Israel  said  to  Samuel, 
Make  us  a  king,  to  judge  us  like  all  the  nations." 
|rhe  prophet,  unwiUing  to  grant  this  request,  laid  the 
i^iatter  before  the  Lord,  who  said  unto  him,  "  They  have 
lot  rejected  thee,  but  they  have  rejected  me."  Then 
19 


20  THE  people's  history 

follows  a  catalogue  of  royal  oppressions  which  should 
come  upon  them  for  demanding  a  king.  God  said: 
"And  ye  shall  l)e  Iris  servants,  and  ye  shall  cry  out  in 
that  day  because  of  your  king  Ayliich  ye  shall  haye 
chosen  you ;  and  the  Lord  will  not  hear  you  in  that 
day."  The  people  had  reason  bitterly  to  repent  of  their 
folly  in  thus  surrendering  their  God-given  rights  into 
the  hands  of  one  man ;  for  it  was  the  beginning  of  a 
series  of  events  which  resulted  in  the  utter  destruction 
of  the  nation,  and  its  dispersion  throughout  the  earth. 
The  tendency  of  monarchy,  when  unrestrained  by 
written  constitutions  and  by  representative  assemblies, 
is  reactionary  and  oppressive ;  but  a  republican  govern- 
ment encoiu^ages  progress.  As  civilization  has  ad- 
vanced, by  the  dissemination  of  sacred  and  secular 
knowledge,  men  have  been  inspired  to  demand  a  voice 
in  the  conduct  of  their  public  affairs.  Thus  the  repub- 
lican principle  has  from  the  beginning  opposed  royalty. 
There  have  been  bloody  revolutions  and  temporary  re- 
actions ;  there  have  been  also  peaceful  conquests,  and, 
not  unfrequently,  counter  revolutions,  when  the  condi- 
tion of  the  people  became  worse  than  before  they  en- 
deavored to  improve  it ;  but  a  bird's-eye  view  of  history 
shoAvs  that  there  has  been  a  gradual  advance  of  popular 
rights.  Very  often  the  people,  driven  to  desperation -by 
t>Tanny,  have  fi'antically  ovei*thrown  their  rulers  and  put 
them  to  death,  in  some  cases  visiting  vengeance  upon 
the  innocent  because  of  the  crimes  of  their  ancestors. 
The  gi'eat  French  Revolution  was  this  kind  of  an  out- 
l)urst,  when  an  outraged  people  arose  in  their  might, 
under  a  burning  sense  of  injustice,  putting  to  death) 
thousands  of  unoffending  persons,  pei*petrating  AVTongs 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  21 

while  endeavoring  to  redress  wrongs,  and  coniniitting 
crime  while  attempting  to  punish  crime.  A  similar 
drama  was  enacted  in  those  events  which  culminated  in 
the  dethronement  and  decapitation  of  (Uiarles  I.  of 
England.  There  was  afterwards  a  reaction,  which  lasted 
for  a  time ;  l)ut  the  spell  had  been  broken,  the  people 
had  become  possessed  of  the  idea  that  they  were  their 
own  masters,  and  with  the  accession  of  William  of 
Orange,  in  1688,  the  great  principle  of  popular  sov- 
ereignty was  imbedded  in  the  British  constitution. 
Since  then  the  republican  principle  has  been  dominant 
over  the  monarchical  in  that  government.  Moreover,  it 
has  made  advances  and  encroachments  continually  from 
that  time.  Now,  Great  Britain  is  a  monarchy  in  form, 
but  a  republic  in  the  dominant  principle  of  its  govern- 
ment. In  France,  under  that  splendid  despot,  the  "  Re- 
publican Emperor,"  Napoleon  I.,  was  exhibited  a  gov- 
ernment republican  in  form,  but  extremely  monarchical 
in  principle. 

These  examples  show  that  the  forms  and  the  princi- 
ples of  government  are  entirely  distinct,  and  that  oppos- 
ing principles  may  co-exist  in  the  same  body,  one  hav- 
ing the  preponderance.  The  great  j;/'?7iCzj[?/<?  of  self- 
government  is  what  mankind  contend  for,  and  not  a 
name  nor  a  form ;  so  when  the  British  people  gained 
the  right  to  elect  those  who  really  ruled  them,  they  did 
not  care  enough  for  the  name  of  kingdom  to  fight  about 
it.  They  had  the  substance,  and  wisely  left  the  name 
to  take  care  of  itself.  So,  in  the  church,  the  name  is  of 
little  value  as  compared  with  the  glorious  principle  for 
(which  the  martyrs  gave  their  lives. 

But  be  it  carefully  noted,  the  Presbyterian  Church 


22  THE  people's  history 

has  not  tlie  monopoly  of  this  principle.  Presbyterian- 
ism  is  the  opposite  of  Episcopacy,  and  yet  it  can  be  con- 
ceived that  the  republican  principle  might  grow  up  in 
the  Episcopal  Church ;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  that  it 
might  die  out  of  the  Presbyterian  body  and  the  mon- 
archical take  its  place.  It  may  also  be  conceived  that 
neither  denomination  should  be  wholly  Episcopal  or 
Presbyterian — that  the  two  principles  should  exist  to- 
gether in  the  same  body,  though  one  must  predominate. 
The  Episcopal  Church  is  oligarchical  in  form,  but  the 
principle  of  spiritual  republicanism  has  been  making 
inroads  upon  it,  until  now  the  bishops  have  but  little 
more  power  than  the  other  clergy.  The  same  state- 
ment may  be  made  with  reference  to  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church.  The  principle  of  self-government 
has  saturated  almost  the  entire  body.  True,  their 
bishops  still  have  the  power  of  appointing  and  remov- 
ing pastors,  which  is  not  republican,  Ijut  this  power  is 
limited  by  the  conference,  and  is  exercised  in  connec- 
tion with  a  cabinet  of  advisers. 

As  the  Episcopalians  and  Methodists  have  been  pro- 
gressing towards  the  great  Presbyterian  principle  from 
one  direction,  in  a  similar  manner  have  the  Congregation- 
alists  and  Baptists  been  approaching  it  fi'om  the  oppo- 
site quarter.  They  were  originally  almost  pure  demo- 
cracies ;  that  is,  people  without  any  rulers,  who  made 
their  own  laws,  and  administered  them  without  the 
intervention  of  anything  but  mere  committees.  But 
necessities  of  administration  have  caused  these  officers' 
to  take  real  governmental  power  into  their  hands,  though 
usually  with  the  consent  of  the  people.  Mr.  Spurgeon  1 
has  his  congregation  organized  partly  on  the  Presbyte- 


OF  PEESBYTERIANISM.  23 

rian  principle,  and  advises  otliers  of  liis  denomination 
to  do  likewise.  , 

This  process  will  go  on.  There  is  an  unmistakable 
tendency  towards  republicanism  in  church  and  state. 
This  results  in  part  from  the  example  of  the  Presbyte- 
rian Church,  but  more  from  the  study  of  God's  Word 
and  from  the  teachings  of  the  Holy  Ghost  m  actual  ex- 
perience. 


CHAPTEE  III. 

Peesbyteuianism  IX  THE  Eahly  Days  of  the  Chiustian 

Era. 

C  HEIST  did  not  send  out  his  apostles  to  found  a 
new  church,  but  to  extend  the  old,  by  preaching 
the  gosj)el,  and  gathering  converts  into  congregations, 
ordaining  them  "  elders  in  every  church."  (Acts  xiv.  23. ) 
They  followed  the  time-honored  customs  of  God's  people 
in  ever}'  land  whither  they  went ;  and  though  the  Je^vs 
were  on  the  alert  to  turn  public  sentiment  against  them, 
we  nowhere  find  that  they  were  charged  with  attempt- 
ing to  organize  a  new  church.  They  carried  out  the 
old  system  of  government  by  elders,  such  as  w^as  seen  in 
every  Jewish  synagogue  throughout  the  world.  They 
Avere  only  extending  the  church  of  the  fathers  among 
all  nations,  and  proclaiming  that  the  promised  Messiah 
had  come.  This  was  the  old  church;  the  Jews,  who 
rejected  Christ,  cast  themselves  out,  and  virtually  made 
themselves  a  new  body. 

We  can  discover,  on  the  one  hand,  no  Congregation - 
ahsm,  for  "every  church"  was  ruled,  not  by  the  peopL^ 
directly,  but  by  their  representatives;  and  on  the  other 
hand,  no  Episcopacy,  for  the  congregation  Avas  con  - 
mitted  to  the  oversight,  not  of  one  man,  but  of  severa 
"  elders."  In  Acts  xx.  28,  where  the  Apostle  Paul  wa' 
instructing  the  elders  of  the  church  of  Ephesus,  whom 
he  had  requested  to  come  down  to  Miletus  for  the  pur- 
24 


people's  history  of  presbyterianism.  25 

pose,  he  said,  "Take  heed  therefore  unto  yourselves, 
and  to  all  the  flock  over  which  the  Holy  Ghost  hath 
made  you  hishops,''  {ETtiauoTrov?).  This  word  was 
translated  "overseers"  in  the  old  "King  James'  Ver- 
sion," but  in  the  new  one — prepared  principally  by  Epis- 
copalians— it  is  correctly  rendered  "bishops."  There 
are  many  other  passages  of  the  same  kind,  l)ut  this  one 
is  sufficient  to  sIk^w  conclusively  that  "bishop"  was 
simply  another  name  for  elder,  these  being  "elders"  to 
whom  the  apostle  Avas  speaking ;  for  a  preceding  verse, 
introducing  this  passage,  reads,  "And  from  Miletus  he 
sent  to  Ephesus,  and  called  tJ(e  elders  of  the  eJiurchy 

A  grand  feature  of  the  Presbyterian  system  is  the 
equal  authority,  in  the  courts  of  the  church,  of  all  th(^ 
presbyters.  It  is  entirely  opposed  to  the  Episcopal  dis- 
tinction of  l)ishops,  priests,  and  deacons.  Paul  shows 
this  in  1  Tim.  v.  17,  "Let  the  elders  that  rule  well  be 
counted  worthy  of  double  honor,  especially  they  who 
labor  in  the  word  and  doctrine."  The  ministry,  as  an 
office,  "is  the  first  in  the  church,  both  for  dignity  and 
usefulness,"  but  there  is  equality  among  all  elders  in 
the  church  courts,  whether  they  be  ruling  or  teaching 
elders.  In  1  Tim.  iv.  11  ordination  is  shown  to  be, 
not  by  one  bishop,  but  by  "the  laying  on  of  the  hands  of 
the  Presbytery,"  which  was  composed  of  a  number  of 
elders  (presbyters),  or  bishops,  as  they  Avere  indifferently 
styled.  In  2  Tim.  i.  6  the  apostle  includes  himself  in 
tjhe  Presbji^ery  which  ordained  Timothy,  when  he  ex- 
lorts,  "  Stir  up  the  gift  that  is  in  thee  by  the  putting  on 
i  my  hands."  The  Apostle  Peter  also  says  (1  Peter 
.  i.),  "The  elders  which  are  among  you  I  exhort,  who 
m  also  an  elder." 


) 


26  THE  people's  history 

The  order  of  apostles  was  a  temporary  one,  jiist  as 
the  priesthood  had  been,  both  having  grown  out  of  the 
exigencies  of  their  respective  periods.  The  business  of 
the  priests  was  to  offer  sacrifices  as  types  of  Christ, 
nntil  he  came  who  is  both  priest  and  sacrifice,  then, 
their  mission  being  fulfilled,  they  passed  away.  The 
apostles  likewise  were  appointed  for  a  temporary  pur- 
pose, to  be  eye-TNdtnesses  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ 
from  the  dead.  The  order,  therefore,  could  not  exist 
after  those  died  who  were  contemporaries  of  Christ. 
To  be  an  apostle,  a  man  must  have  been  divinely  called 
to  that  office,  and  have  seen  the  Lord  after  his  resur- 
rection. In  order  that  Paul  might  be  qualified,  he  not 
having  seen  Christ  before,  the  heavens  were  opened 
that  he  might  look  upon  him  who  had  been  crucified, 
dead  and  buried.  This  is  plainly  implied  in  1  Cor. 
ix.  1,  where  he  is  ^-indicating  his  apostohc  authority. 
He  says:  "Am  I  not  an  apostle?  ....  Havel  not 
seen  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord?"  There  could,  therefore, 
be  no  successors  to  the  apostles,  as  none  afterwards 
saw  our  risen  Lord. 

AVhen  the  apostles,  having  finished  their  work,  passed 
off  the  scene,  as  the  priesthood  had  done  before,  the 
government  of  the  church  remained  what  it  had  been 
from  the  beginning,  a  government  by  assemblies  of 
elders,  or  "presbyters."  It  was  a  spiritual  republic, 
admitting  of  no  distinctions  of  rank ;  for,  as  we  have 
seen,  even  the  Apostle  Peter,  whom  Roman  Cathohcr 
claim  as  the  first  of  the  Popes,  spake  to  the  elders  aai 
one  of  their  own  number,  recognizing  the  equality  <^ 
all  rulers  in  the  church  of  God.  4| 

We  have  abundant  proof  that  the  organization  of  the 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.      ♦  27 

cliurcli  after  the  days  of  the  apostles  was  essentially 
Presbyterian.  Clemens  Komanus,  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated writers  of  christian  antiquity,  who  was  a  leading 
presbyter  in  the  congregation  at  Eome,  says,  in  an  ad- 
dress to  another  church:  "It  is  a  shame,  my  beloved, 
and  unworthy  of  your  christian  profession  to  bear,  that 
the  most  firm  and  ancient  church  of  the  Corinthians 
should  be  led  to  rise  up  against  the  elders.  Let  the 
flock  of  Christ  enjoy  peace  with  the  elders  which  are 
set  over  it."  These  words  were  written  in  the  last  de- 
cade of  the  first  century,  and  are  of  immense  value  in 
establishing  our  claim  that  the  church  of  the  early  ages 
was  Presbyterian,  because  a  great  number  of  the  then 
existing  congregations  had  been  organized  under  the  eye 
of  the  apostles  themselves  but  a  slioii  time  before. 

Hippolytus,  an  eminent  ecclesiastic,  who  lived  in  the 
latter  pai-t  of  the  second  and  the  first  half  of  the  third 
century,  writes :  "  The  elders  cited  Noctus,  who  was 
charged  Avith  heresy.  Having  summoned  him  a  second 
time,  they,  condemned  him,  and  cast  him  out  of  the 
church."  Here  is  a  trial  by  a  Presbytery,  as  plain  al- 
most as  words  can  make  it. 

It  is  with  peculiar  pleasure  that  the  testimony  of  a 
gi-eat  Episcopalian  is  here  introduced.  The  late  Rev. 
Ai-tluu'  Penrhyn  Stanley,  D.  T>.,  Dean  of  Westminster 
A])bey,  intimate  fiiend  of  Queen  Victoria,  and  travelling 
companion  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  in  a  public*  address, 
uttered  the  following  remarkable  words:  "The  most 
lAarned  of  all  the  bishops  of  England,  whose  accession 
V)  the  great  see  of  Durham  has  recently  been  welcomed 
ivitli  rare  unanimity  by  the  whole  Church  of  England, 
lias,  with  his  characteristic  moderation  and  erudition, 


28         THE  people's  history  of  PEESBYTERIANISM.  1 

proved  beyond  dispute,  in  bis  celel)rated  essay  attacbed 
to  bis  edition  of  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  tbe  Pbilippians, 
tbat  tbe  early  constitution  of  tbe  apostolic  cburcbes  of 
tbe  first  century  was  not  that  of  a  single  hishop,  hut  oj 
<t  hody  of  i^adors,  indifferently  styled^  hisho2)s  or  jjresby- 
fer^,  and  tbat  it  was  not  until  tbe  very  end  of  tbe  apos- 
tolic age  tbat  tbe  office  wbicb  we  now  call  Episcopac}^ 
gradually  and  slowly  made  its  way  into  Asia  Minor; 
that  Prei<f>ytery  was  not  a  later  grovth  ovt  of  Episapacy, 
hut  that  Episcopacy  vxts  a  later g7\nr'l  ontof  Preslrytery  ; 
tbat  tbe  office  wbicb  tbe  apostles  instituted  was  a  kind 
of  rule,  not  hy  Inshopts,  hut  of  preshyters  ;  and  tbat  even 
doivn  to  the  third  ceidury  presbyters  as  well  as  bisbops 
possessed  tbe  power  of  nominating  and  consecrating 
bisbops;  and  besides,  there  were ^  from  thecoinmence- 
raent  of  the  middle  ages  dovni  to  the  Reformation,  large 
exceptions  from  the  ^^W/ic/j^Zc'  of  Ejnscopal  government 
lohich  can  he  called  hy  no  other  name  than  Preshyterianr 
Tbis  statement,  coming  from  Bisliop  Ligbtfoot,  of 
Durbam,  "tbe  most  learned  of  all  tbe  bisbops  of  tbe 
Cliurcb  of  England,"  endorsed  by  Dean  Stanley,  wlio, 
for  bis  elegant  diction,  bis  liberal  views  and  scbolarly 
attainments,  was  for  many  years  tbe  favorite  preacber 
of  tbe  Britisb  court  and  aristocracy,  is  of  course  un- 
prejudiced and  is  an  important  concession  to  tbe  ant  i- 
tpiitv  of  Presbvterianism. 


CHAPTEE  IV. 

The  Dakk  Ages;  Twilight  with  Two.Staes. 

A  S  time  passed  on,  tlie  desire  for  pre-eminence,  ever 
jLJl.  present  in  the  minds  of  men,  the  sin  by  which 
'ell  the  angels  and  our  first  parents,  began  to  assert  itself 
n  the  republic  of  the  church.  That  which  cast  down 
;he  angels  from  heaven,  which  ruined  paradise,  which 
lestroyed  the  nation  of  Israel — the  lust  for  power — was 
preparing  to  carry  a  large  part  of  the  church  of  Christ 
nto  idolatry,  corruption,  and  apostasy.  The  pastors 
)f  large  congregations,  not  by  a  sudden  assumption, 
3ut  gradually,  and  perhaps  almost  unconsciously,  came 
o  exercise  authority  over  those  in  smaller  parishes. 
3eing  resorted  to  for  advice  and  assistance  by  country 
)astors,  many  of  these  city  ministers  believed  that  they 
lad  the  right  to  appoint  and  finally  to  consecrate  men 
o  the  ministry.  This  was  the  germ  of  Episcopacy,  but 
)f  course  it  required  ages  for  the  innovation  to  pervade 
Luy  large  portion  of  the  world,  and  to  secure  its  recog- 
lition  as  a  part  of  the  constitution  of  the  church.  At 
ast,  however,  it  became  the  general  rule.  The  tendency 
)f  which  Episcopacy  was  the  outgrowth  continued  to 
l^n^elop  until  it  culminated  in  the  establishment  of  two 

eat  ecclesiastical  empires,  corresponding  to  and  hav- 
their  two  head-bishops  in  the  tAvo  principal  cities 
the  world,  Rome  and  Constantinople.  Thus  arose 
lie  Greek  and  Eoman  Catholic  Churches.  The  church 
29 


30  THE  people's  histoby 

power,  which  before  had  existed  in  sokition  throughout 
the  whole  body  of  behevers,  at  last  nearly  all  crystalized 
around  these  two  centres,  and  Episcopacy  found  its  com- 
plete deyelopment  in  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
and  the  Pope  of  Rome.  These  two  pastorates,  by 
gradual  encroachments  extending  through  a  period  of 
seyeral  centuries,  had  gained  authority  oyer  almost 
the  whole  christian  world.  The  change  of  goyernment 
was  ineyitably  accompanied  by  a  change  of  doctrine, 
and,  as  the  principle  of  goyernment  by  the  people, 
through  their  representatiyes,  passed  aw^ay,  nearly  all 
the  truth  that  clusters  around  the  doctrine  of  diyine 
soyereignty  vanished  with  it,  and  a  system  of  salvation 
by  works  came  in  its  place.  Divine  sovereignty  and  re- 
ligious liberty  generally  stand  or  fall  together,  and  one 
cannot  long  exist  without  the  other. 

Then  came  the  dark  ages,  when  the  world  was  fet- 
tered in  the  chains  of  ecclesiastical  tjTanny,  and  lulled 
to  slumber  b}^  the  beautiful  forms  and  ceremonies  super- 
added upon  the  simplicity  of  apostolic  ordinances. 
But,  as  in  the  Old  Testament  dispensation  during  the 
days  of  Elijah,  God  still  reserved  to  himself  a  remnant 
who  were  faithful  and  refused  to  recognize  idolatry,  so 
in  the  dark  ages  there  were  a  noble  few  avIio  were  faith- 
ful to  his  word.  To  the  general  rule  of  obedience  to 
the  two  anti-christs  who  had  usurped  the  crown-rights 
of  Jesus  as  prophet,  priest,  and  king  over  his  people, 
"there  were,"  in  the  words  of  Bishop  Lightfoot  ailid 
Dean  Stanley,  "  large  exceptions."  In  the  general  dark- 
ness there  were  two  stars  which  refused  to  be  extijji- 
guished,  but  continued  to  shine  as  pledges  of  God  s 


OF  PRESBYTEKIANISM.  31 

power  and  of  a  coming  clay ;  those  two  stars  were  the 
Waldenses  and  the  Culdees,  the  one  glistening  among 
the  rocky  pinnacles  of  the  Alps,  and  the  other  al)()v<' 
the  islands  of  the  Northwestern  sea.^ 


'  Considerable  material  for  the  preceding  chapters  has  been  drawn 
from  the  author's  work  entitled  ''  Presbyterian  mil  for  the  People.'"  For 
a  fuller  treatment  of  this  subject,  see  ''■  Preshyterianism  the  truly  Primi- 
tive and  Apostolical  Constitution  of  the  Church  <f  Christ,  "  1835;  by  Kev. 
Samuel  Miller,  D.  D.  iVlso  other  Avorks  by  the  same  author,  by  llev. 
Charles  Hodge,  D.  D.,  and 'books  by  many  more  writers  on  church 
polity,  both  of  our  own  and  former  times. 


CHAPTEE  Y. 

The  AValdexses. 

' '  Thy  slaughtered  saints,  whose  bones 
Lie  scattered  on  the  Alpine  mountains  cold, 
Even  them  who  kept  tliy  truth  so  pure  of  old, 
When  all  our  fathers  worshiped  stocks  and  stones." 

— John  Milton. 

rriHE  crescent  range  of  tlie  Cottian  Alps,  in  nortli- 
J_  western  Italy,  encloses  a  series  of  valleys  of  rare 
beauty,  wliicli  are  the  home  of  the  Waldenses.  Through 
these  sequestered  shades  run  the  little  streams  which 
unite,  in  the  plain  of  Piedmont,  to  form  the  riyer  Po. 
This  riyer  ^o^\^  by  Turin,  across  the  northern  part  of 
Italy,  into  the  Adriatic  sea.  A  more  picturesque  region 
it  would  be  difficult  to  find  in  Europe ;  but  the  travellers 
who  visit  it  are  not  attracted  so  much  by  its  groves  and 
waterfalls,  its  dark  gorges  and  snow-capped  mountains, 
as  by  the  marvellous  history  of  the  people  who  dwell 
among  them.  In  these  fastnesses  God  has  preserved  a 
little  flock  of  faithful  ones,  who,  through  ages  of  relent- 
less persecution,  have  defied  the  power  of  a  hostile 
world,  showing  at  once  what  faith  can  do  with  men, 
and  what  God  will  do  for  faith. 

In  former  times  they  were  far  more  numerous  th.an 
now,  and  extended  over  not  only  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  plain  of  Piedmont,  1  )ut  also  the  western  slopes  ^pf 
the  mountains  of  Savoy  and  Dauphiny  in  France.  Blit 
centuries  of  persecution  by  fire  and  sword  have  reduc€|-d 
32 


THE  people's  history  of  PllESBYTERIANISM.  88 

tlieir  numbers  to  about  twenty-tliree  thousand  persons, 
dwelling  in  what  is  called  the  Yaudois  country,  a  dis- 
trict eighteen  miles  long  by  fourteen  in  width.  Their 
religious  capital  is  the  lovely  hamlet  of  Torre-Pellice 
(pronounced  Torry-Pelleechy),  where  are  maintained 
their  principal  theological  seminary  and  other  institu- 
tions. The  pastors  are  called  Barhas,  and  each  congre- 
gation has  a  session  or  consistory,  composed  of  Preyre 
(presbyters),  as  well  as  a  board  of  deacons.  The  whole 
Waldensian  Church  is  governed  by  a  Synod,  Avhicli  meets 
usually  once  a  year,  in  September,  except  in  times  of 
severe  persecution,  when  the  meetings  have  l)een  held 
in  midwinter,  their  valleys  then  being  made  inaccessible 
by  snow  and  ice. 

Koman  Catholic  writers  as  far  back  as  1250,  nearly 
three  hundred  years  before  the  Keformation  under  Cal- 
vin and  Luther,  described  the  Waldenses  as  the  most 
ancient  of  all  heretics,  though  unable  to  tell  why  or  how 
they  originated.  The  Waldenses  themselves  claim  de- 
scent from  the  apostolic  age,  and  decline  to  be  called 
"  Reformed,"  "  because,"  they  say,  "  we  have  never  been 
defomiedr  They  claim  as  among  their  ancestors  those 
christians  who  fled  from  Rome  during  the  persecutions 
of  Nero,  and  say  that  missionaries,  perhaps  some  of  the 
apostles  themselves,  on  tlieir  way  t(j  Gaul  and  Spain, 
the  main  route  to  which  lay  by  tlieir  country,  preached 
the  gosj^el  in  their  valleys.  These  declarations  were 
made  in  an  address  to  Francis  I.  in  1544,  while  they 
Avere  in  full  possession  of  their  records.  In  this  docu- 
ment they  state  that  their  faith  is  "  entirely  such  as  they 
have  received  from  hand  to  hand  from  their  ancestors, 
according  as  their*  predecessors,  in  all  times  and  in  all 

)  3 


34  THE  people's  HiSTOltY 

ages,  had  tanglit  tlieiii  it."  In  nearly  all  the  confessions 
which  from  time  to  time  they  addressed  to  their  rulers 
craving  liberty  to  worship  God,  they  have  insisted  upon 
a  descent  ^\frora  <tll  t'nne,  from  time  hnmemoriaW 
Their  French  translation  of  the  Bible,  prepared  by 
Robert  Olivetan,  by  order  of  the  Synod,  in  1535,  con- 
tains a  preface  dedicating  it  to  God.  "It  is  to  thee 
alone  I  present  this  precious  treasure,  in  the  name  of 
a  certain  poor  people,  thy  friends  and  brethren  in 
Jesus  Christ,  avIio,  ever  since  they  were  blessed  and 
enriched  with  it  hy  the  aj^odhi^  and  amhasmdors  of 
Christ,  Jiare  dill ]x>smssed  and  enjoyed  the  sameT 

That  the  history  of  the  Waldenses,  as  any  kind  of  an 
organized  body,  can  be  traced  further  back  than  the 
twelfth  century,  is  not  admitted  l)y  modern  writers  of 
church  history ;  and  it  is  asserted  that  they  did  not  ex- 
ist before  the  days  of  Peter  Waldo  of  Lyons,  from  whose 
labors,  it  is  alleged  by  some,  they  sprang.  This  re- 
markable man,  a  rich  merchant,  Avho  lived  three  hun- 
dred years  before  the  Reformation,  sold  all  his  posses- 
sions and  devoted  his  property  and  life  to  the  proclama- 
tion of  the  gospel.  He  and  his  followers  were  banished, 
and  scattered  all  over  southeastern  France,  as  well  as 
contiguous  poi*tions  of  Italy  and  Switzerland,  sowing 
the  good  seed  wherever  they  went.  This  was  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century ;  so  that,  even  gi'anting 
that  the  Waldenses  originated  with  Peter  AValdo,  they 
still  can  claim  to  be  the  oldest  of  all  the  Re-formed 
churches  on  the  continent  of  Eiirope,  and,  with  the 
Bohemians  and  Moravians,  the  only  mediaeval  dissenter^ 
who  have  maintained  their  organic  existence  through 
all  persecutions  and  changes  down  to  the  present  tinle. 


OF  PllESBYTERIANISM.  35 

But  it  seems  quite  certain  that  the  doctrines  of  the 
Scri2)tures,  after  the  Presbyterian  form,  were  held  with 
more  or  less  dehniteness,  in  fundamental  divergence 
from  the  Church  of  Eonie,  by  communities  in  north- 
western Italy  long  before  the  preaching  of  Waldo.' 
With  how  much  brightness  the  star  of  truth  glimmered 
in  the  dim  past  in  this  most  interesting  country  it  may 
not  be  possible  to  show,  but  it  is  more  than  probable 
that  it  has  never  been  wholly  extinguished  from  the 
apostolic  era  to  this  day. 

The  ancient  custom  was  for  every  minister  to  spend 
at  least  tAvo  years  in  missionary  labors.  They  went  two 
and  two,  a  Tiegidor  and  a  Coadjuteiir,  all  over  Italy,  and, 
indeed,  as  far  north  as  Germany.  At  one  period  their 
missionaries  could  travel  from  Florence  to  Cologne, 
stopping  every  night  with  their  friends  on  the  way. 
They  practiced  medicine  and  other  useful  arts  for  a 
support  that  they  might  preach  the  gospel,  and  were 
aided  by  humble  colporteurs,  or  travelling  pedlars,  who 
distributed  copies  of  the  word  of  God.  At  one  time 
they  had  six  thousand  adherents  in  Venice,  and  as  many 
in  Genoa. 

The  following  verses,  by  the  poet  Whittier,  aptly  show 
tke  life  and  work  of  these  colporteurs : 

THE  VAUDOIS  MISSIONAllY. 

"  O,  lady  fair,  these  silks  of  miue 

Are  beautiful  and  rare — 
The  richest  web  of  Indian  loom 

Which  beauty's  self  might  wear. 
And  these  pearls  are  piire  and  mild  to  behold, 

And  \\\\1\  radiant  light  they  vie ; 
I  have  brought  them  with  me  a  weary  way : 

Will  my  gentle  lady  buy  ?" 


36  THE  peoplf/s  histoky 

And  the  lady  smiled  on  the  woiii  old  iiiaii, 

Through  the  dark  and  clustering  curls 
Which  veiled  her  brow  as  she  bent  to  view 

His  silk  and  glittering  jjearls ; 
And  she  placed  their  price  in  the  old  mans  ha) id, 

And  lightly  turned  away ; 
But  she  paused  at  the  wanderer's  earnest  call — 

"  My  gentle  lady,  stay  I" 
"  O  lady  fair,  I  have  yet  a  gem 

Which  a  purer  lustre  flings 
Than  the  diamond  flash  of  the  jewelled  crown 

On  the  lofty  brow  of  kings ; 
A  wonderful  pearl  of  exceeding  price, 

Whose  virtue  shall  not  decay; 
Whose  light  shall  be  as  a  spell  to  thee, 

And  a  blessing  on  thy  way!" 
The  lady  glanced  at  the  mirroring  steel, 

Where  her  youthful  form  was  seen. 
Where  her  eyes  shone  clear  and  her  dark  locks  waved 

Their  clasping  pearls  between ; 
' '  Bring  forth  thy  pearl  of  exceeding  worth. 

Thou  traveller  gray  and  old, 
And  name  the  price  of  thy  precious  gem, 

And  my  pages  shall  count  thy  gold!" 

The  cloud  went  off  from  the  pilgrim's  brow, 

As  a  small  and  meagre  book, 
Unchased  with  gold  or  diamond  gem, 

From  his  folding  robe  he  took : 
' '  Here,  lady  fair,  is  the  pearl  of  price — 

May  it  prove  as  such  to  thee ! 
Nay,  keep  thy  gold — I  ask  it  not — 

For  the  Word  of  Ood  is  free."' 

The  hoary  traveller  went  his  way. 

But  the  gift  he  left  behind 
Hath  had  its  pure  and  perfect  work 

On  that  high-born  maiden's  mind ; 
And  she  hath  turned  from  her  pride  of  sin 

To  the  lowliness  of  triith. 
And  given  her  human  heart  to  God 

In  its  beautiful  hour  of  vouth. 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  ^7 

And  she  liatli  left  the  old  gray  walls 

Where  an  evil  faith  hath  power, 
The  courtly  knights  of  her  father's  train, 

And  the  maidens  of  her  bower ; 
And  she  hath  gone  to  the  Vaudois  vale, 

By  lordly  feet  nntrod, 
Where  the  poor  and  needy  of  earth  are  rich 

In  the  perfect  love  of  God  ! 

The  first  determined  effort  of  the  secular  power  to 
destroy  the  Waldenses  dates  from  1209,  three  hundred 
and  fifty  years  before  the  first  General  Assembly  met  in 
Edinburgh,  Scotland.      The   Emperor  Otho  confen-ed 
upon  the  Archbishop  of  Turin  authority  to  annihilate 
them  by  force  of  arms ;  but  they  were  protected  by  the 
hand  of  God,  and  the  attempt  was  a  failure.     And  so 
has  been  every  similar  attempt  to  destroy  this  poor 
httle  Alpine  people.     Empires  have  risen  and  fallen ; 
dynasties  have  come  and  gone ;  the  whole  face  of  the 
world  has  changed  again  and  again;  but  this  heroic 
band   has    not    been    conquered,    nor   has   their    star 
ceased  to  shine  above  the  snoAvy  pinnacles  of  the  Alps. 
Passing  over  a  period  of  two  centuries,  for  in  a  work 
like  this  the  different  persecutions,  which  seldom  ceased 
altogether,  cannot  all  even  be  mentioned,  we  come  to  the 
year  1476,  seven  years  before  the  birth  of  Martin  Luther. 
Yolande,  widow  of  Amadeus  IX.,  a  good  Duke  of  Savoy, 
and  regent  of  his  dominions,  a  cruel  woman,  undertook 
in  that  year  to  bring  all  the  AValdenses  into  the  bosom 
of  the  Church  of  Rome.     Misfortimes  in  her  own  gov- 
ernment, which  resulted  in  her  being  made  a  prisoner 
by  the  Duke  of  Biu'gundy,  postponed  the  execution  of 
her  scheme  for  ten  years,  when  Charles,  Yolande's  son, 
directed  inquiry  to  i)e  made  as  to  why  his  mother's  com- 


38  THE  people's  history 

maud  to  recant  had  been  disobeyed.  When  the  Wal- 
denses  stoutly  refused  to  give  up  their  faith,  demanding 
instead  that  the  Church  of  Rome  should  return  to  the 
purit}^  of  the  gospel,  Pope  Innocent  VIII.  fulminated 
against  them  a  bull  of  extermination,  calling  upon  all 
temporal  powers  to  com])ine  for  their  utter  destruction 
from  the  face  of  the  earth.  This  infamous  \m\\,  issued 
by  an  alleged  Aicar  of  the  meek  and  lowly  Jesus,  invited 
all  Catholics  to  take  up  arms  against  these  innocent  peo- 
ple, "  absolving  from  aU  ecclesiastical  pains  and  penal- 
ties, general  and  particular,  those  who  should  take  up 
the  cross;  releasing  them  from  any  oaths  they  might 
have  taken  ;  legitimizing  their  title  to  any  property  they 
might  have  illegally  acquired  ;  and  promising  remission 
of  sins  to  such  as  should  kill  any  heretic.  It  annulled 
all  contracts  made  in  favor  of  the  "Waldenses ;  ordered 
their  domestics  to  abandon  them,  forbade  all  persons  to 
give  them  any  aid  whatever,  and  empowered  all  per- 
sons to  take  possession  of  their  property." 

Eighteen  thousand  regular  troops  were  contributed 
by  the  sovereign  of  Piedmont  and  the  king  of  France, 
and  in  their  train  came  a  host  of  vagabonds,  fanatics, 
pillagers,  thieves,  assassins,  to  prey  upon  the  poor  Wal- 
denses.  It  did  seem  as  if  the  hour  of  their  doom  had 
struck.  But  no ;  there  is  a  God  in  heaven  who  hears 
the  cry  of  the  lowly  and  the  oppressed.  A  terrible  con- 
flict ensued,  in  which  the  people  of  the  valleys  were 
victorious  over  the  marauders,  and  put  them  to  rout. 
One  standard  bearer  alone  remained,  concealed  for  some 
days,  in  a  ravine ;  but  at  length,  starving  and  freezing, 
he  surrendered  himself  to  the  AValdensians,  who  gave 
him  food  and  shelter,  and  sent  him  back  to  his  friends. 


OF  PRE^iBYTERIANISM.  39 

On  the  western  or  French  slopes  of  the  mountains,  as 
far  back  as  1238,  the  faithful  were  persecuted  by  Rome, 
and  in  the  following  century  there  were  two  hundred  and 
thirty  burned  at  one  time,  in  front  of  the  cathedral  of 
Eml:>run.  After  that  a  war  between  England  and  France 
caused  tlieni  to  have  rest  for  a  time,  but  in  1488,  the  same 
papal  legate,  Cataneo,  who  led  the  expedition  just  de- 
scribed, which  resulted  so  disastrously,  on  the  east  side 
of  the  mountains,  came  over  to  the  west  to  the  Yal  Louise, 
to  exterminate  the  heretics  there.  Unfortunately  he  was 
more  successful  this  time.  The  people  l)etook  them- 
selves en  masse  to  a  cave,  cavrving  all  their  little  ones 
and  the  greater  part  of  their  movable  sid)stance  A^tli 
them.  The  cruel  papists  followed  them,  and  filUng  the 
mouth  of  the  cavern  with  wood,  set  lire  to  it,  and  smoth- 
ered three  thousand  persons,  the  entire  population  of  the 
valley.  Four  hundred  infants  were  found  in  their  cra- 
dles or  wrapped  in  the  cold  embraces  of  their  mothers, 
all  dead  together,  the  work  of  these  fiendish  men,  who 
claimed  to  he  the  ministers  of  the  Prince  of  Peace. 

Cataneo  then  turned  to  some  neighboring  valleys  for 
a  similar  work,  ])ut  whereas  hundreds  were  slaughtered, 
a  remnant  survived,  and  though  their  Bibles  were 
ordered  to  be  destroyed,  a  few  remained ;  and  lest  these 
should  be  taken  also,  and  the  word  of  God  be  lost  to 
them  entirely,  they  divided  u]^  the  Scriptures  into  por- 
tions, to  be  memorized  h\  the  young,  each  person  learn- 
ing a  part,  that  in  every  neighl^orhood  there  might  be 
those  who  coidd  at  any  time  recite  or  reproduce  the 
whole  l:>ook.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  version  of 
ilol)^^;  Olivetan,  mentioned  before,  was  the  first  French 
translation  of  the  entire  Bible  given  to  the  world. 


40  THE  people's  history 

Clement  VIII.,  in  tlie  year  l)ef()re  liis  death,  (offered 
plenary  indulgence  t<:)  every  Waldensian  in  French  ter- 
ritory who  would  recant  and  enter  the  Church  of  Eome. 
But  not  one  responded.  A  horrible  persecution  fol- 
lowed in  1545.  Twenty-two  villages  in  Provence 
were  huriit  down,  four  thousand  persons  were  killed, 
and  the  congregations  well-nigh  destroyed.  About 
four  thousand  took  refuge  in  flight,  l)ut  afterwards  re- 
turned, to  drag  out  a  miserable  existence  in  poverty  and 
want.  During  this  persecution,  the  most  inhuman 
tortures  were  inflicted  upon  the  Waldensians;  little 
children  Avere  torn  from  their  mother's  breasts,  to  perish 
in  their  presence  ;  old  men  and  the  wounded  and  dying 
were  thrown  to  swine  to  be  devoured ;  women  who  had 
fled  for  refuge  to  churches  were  brutally  ravished,  and 
flung  headlong  out  of  the  windows  of  the  towers,  or 
over  precipices ;  and  every  refinement  of  cruelty  prac- 
ticed which  the  ingenuity  of  man  could  devise. 

In  1530,  the  Waldenses  living  on  the  French  side  of 
the  Alps  sent  George  Morel  and  Pierre  Masson  to  the 
Swiss  and  German  Reformers,  to  lay  before  them  a 
statement  as  to  the  condition  of  their  church,  and  ask 
explanation  of  certain  doctrines.  On  their  return, 
Masson  was  seized  and  beheaded  at  Dijon,  but  Morel 
made  his  way  home.  He  laid  before  his  people  a 
statement  of  what  he  had  seen  and  heard,  and  such  a 
profound  impression  was  made  that  it  was  determined 
to  call  a  Synod  to  consider  the  doctrinal  statements 
brought  fi'om  the  North.  Farel,  who  was  the  prede- 
cessor, and  afterwards  the  coadjutor  of  Calvin  in 
Geneva,  was  present.  The  doctrinal  system  which  the 
Synod  adopted  showed  the  influence  of  the  Swiss  Re- 


:e-  I 

i 


OF  PKESBYTEIJIANISM.  41 

formers,  and  the  liaiid  of  Farel  is  clearly  seen  in  some 
of  its  declarations. 

In  1560  a  decree  was  issued  that  none  but  Eoman 
\  Catholic  preachers  should  be  heard  in  the  valleys ;  but 
;  when  the  attempt  was  made  to  carry  out  this  order,  the 
I  Waldenses    made    successful   resistance,   and  in   1561 
I  gained  the  privilege  of  freedom  to  worship  in  a  limited 
I  space.     The  agreement  on  the  part  of  the  government 
was  not  kept,  and  they  Avere  soon  again  plunged  into 
'  afflictions.     In  Calabria  men,  women  and  children  were 
butchered  indiscriminately,  and  many  that  were  spared 
were  carried  on  board  the  Spanish  galleys,  or  sold  as 
slaves.     Only  in  the  valleys  of  the  Alps  did  the  true 
religion  survive  the  two  hundred  years  of  fiery  trial, 
and  that  through  unspeakable  sufi'ering.     In  1630  the 
plague  was  brought  among  them  by  foreign  soldiers, 
and  in  one  year  more  than  ten  thousand  persons  died. 
Only  two  pastors  were  left,  and  it  was  necessary  to  im- 
port ministers  from  France.     After  a  time,  however,  a 
new   corps   of  native  pastors   Avere   educated   and   in- 
stalled. 

The  year  1655  is  a  memorable  one  in  the  annals  of 
he  Waldenses.  Keligious  bigotry  and  crueltry  over- 
eaped  all  bounds,  and  massacres,  too  horrible  to  be  de- 
licribed,  took  place  among  them.  In  some  villages 
3very  house  and  every  chamber  was  the  scene  of  lust 
ind  murder.  Hell  seemed  to  have  emptied  its  demons 
nto  the  brutal  horde  avIio  ravaged  the  homes  of  the 
people  of  God.  It  became  the  scandal  of  Christendom, 
ihe  civilized  world  Avas  incensed,  and  humanity  out- 
aged  could  bear  no  more.  Oliver  CroniAvell,  Lord 
^rotector  of  England,  at  the  solicitation  of  his  illustri- 


42  THE  teople's  histoky 

ous  secretiUT,  John  Milton,  interfered  with  <^reat  energy,  : 
and  commanded  their  persecutors  to  "let  those  men  ' 
alone,"  or  they    would    feel   the    weight  of  England's 
power.     They  knew  that  this  came  from  one  whom  it 
would  be  dangerous  to  trifle  with,  and  j)rudently  de- 
sisted from  the  mad  carniyal  of  blood. 

Cromwell  sent  a  gift  of  £30,000  for  the  rehef  of  the 
suffering,  and  offered  them  a  home  in  Ireland.  Differ- 
ent would  haye  been  the  subsequent  history  of  tlu' 
Emerald  Isle  had  this  offer  been  accepted  by  thest" 
brave  and  thrifty  people.  The  Waldenses  still  hold 
Cromwell  and  Milton  in  honor  on  account  of  this  gener- 
ous kindness,  and  on  the  walls  of  their  theological  col- 
lege at  Torre-Pellice  is  now  a  large  engraving,  repre- 
senting "The  Uncrowned  King"  and  his  secretary,  the 
poet  of  ]\tradwe  Lost.  The  struggles  of  these  peo])le 
during  those  terrible  times,  under  the  leadership  of  Ca])- 
tain  Gianavel,  a  name  that  belongs  to  fame,  constitute 
one  of  the  most  pathetic  passages  in  the  history  of 
earth's  heroes.  A  temporary  lull  folloAved,  extending 
up  to  1085.  "When  thi^  eve  of  the  reader  of  history 
touches  that  date  it  beholds  behind  it  the  fearful  words, 
"  Revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes."  This  famous 
edict,  granting  a  cei-tain  amount  of  religious  libei*ty  to 
French  subjects,  had  been  signed  by  Henry  IV.,  at' 
Nantes,  in  A})ril,  1598.  Now,  nearly  a  hundred  years  - 
afterwards,  Louis  XIY-.,  a  man  of  surpassing  intellect  t 
and  power,  sought  to  atone  for  his  wicked  life  by  root- 
ing out  the  Huguenots  from  his  dominions.  He  had 
hardly  begun  this  cruel  war  upon  his  own  people  when 
he  wrote  to  young  Victor  Amadeus  II.,  Duke  of  Savoy, 
to  use  against  the  Waldenses  the  same  measures  adopted 


i 


OF  PliESBYTERIANISM.  43 

for  the  destruction  of  the  Huguenots.  On  the  31st  of 
January,  1()(S(),  the  duke  issued  a  proclamation,  com- 
manding all  Waldenses  to  join  the  Eoman  Church,  or 
leave  the  country  in  fifteen  days.  They  refused  to  do 
either,  and  a  Prencli  army  was  sent  against  them,  when, 
after  a  heroic  struggle,  thej  Avere  forced  to  surrender. 
Thousands  now  were  sent  into  exile.  About  twenty-six 
hundred  settled  in  Geneva,  and  colonies  w^ere  estal)- 
lished  in  various  parts  of  Germany.  But  the  love  of 
country  was  too  strong  for  them  to  be  easily  domesti- 
cated in  foreign  lands,  and  home  sickness  compelled 
many  of  the  emigrants  to  return.  In  the  summer  of 
1689  about  nine  hundred  Waldenses,  headed  by  their 
pastor,  Henry  Arnaud,  forced  their  way  back  from 
Switzerland,  through  enormous  sufferings  and  dangers, 
to  their  native  valleys. 

When  Napoleon  Bonaparte  became  master  of  Italy, 
brighter  days  dawned.  This  great  warrior  took  special 
interest  in  the  Waldenses,  and  gave  them  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  Keformed  Church  of  France.  With  the 
downfall  of  Napoleon  came  a  return  of  persecution, 
but,  on  the  intervention  of  England  nnd  Prussia,  they 
were  estal)lislied  by  an  edict,  in  1(S16,  in  the  enjoyment 
of  their  libei-ties.  In  1848  the  Waldenses  Avere  placed 
upon  the  same  footing  with  all  the  other  people  of  the 
country,  and  the  great  conflict  of  ages  Avas  ended.  They 
then  l)egan  again,  and  have  continued  up  to  the  present 
day,  the  Avork  of  extending  the  knoAvledge  of  tlu^  8cri])- 
tures  throughout  Italy.  The  blessing  of  God  n^sts 
upon  their  labors,  and  they  have  been  greatly  prospered. 
In  almost  every  town  of  importance  tliey  liavt^  estab- 
lisjied  churches.       Outside  of  their  valleys  they'  have 


44  THE  PEOl'LF/S  HlSTOllY 

forty-one  congregations,  thirty -four  missionary  stations, 
and  one  hundred  and  fifty  isohited  places  yisited  1)\ 
their  missionaries.  They  seem  to  have  a  gi*eat  work  to 
(h:)  in  the  redemption  of  heautiful  Italy  from  the  thral- 
dom of  popery. 

This  historic  clmrch,  called  now,  more  commonly, 
" Yaudois,"  is  a  member  of  the  great  "Alliance  of  the 
Reformed  Churches  holding  the  Presbyterian  System," 
and  is  represented  in  the  triennial  councils  of  this  body, 
which  includes  all  Presbyterians  throughout  the  world. 

The  Yaudois  Church  possesses  the  following  public 
institutions:  (1,)  A  school  of  theology  at  Florence; 
three  years'  course  of  study;  average  number  of  stu- 
dents, twelve  to  fifteen.  (2,)  A  college  for  theological 
studies ;  eight  years'  study ;  sixty  to  eighty  pupils ;  at 
Torre-Pellice.  (3,)  A  chapel  of  ease  for  the  college,  or 
Latin  school ;  three  years'  course ;  fifteen  to  twent} 
pupils;  at  Pomaret.  (4,)  A  normal  school  to  train 
schoolmasters;  four  years'  course;  pupils,  thirty;  at 
Torre-Pellice.  (5, )  A  superior  school  for  young  girls ; 
five  years'  study;  average,  seventy  pupils;  at  Torre- 
Pellice.  (6,)  A  hospital  for  the  sick  at  Torre-Pellice. 
(7,)  Another  hospital  at  Pomaret.  (8,)  An  orphanage 
iov  fifty  young  girls  near  Torre-Pellice. 

Excei)t  the  Holy  Land,  there  is  no  poi-tion  of  the 
earth  more  interesting,  in  connection  with  the  history 
of  the  church  of  God,  than  the  Waldensian  valleys  of 
northwestern  Italy,  the  home  of  the  "Israel  of  the 
Alps." 

"The  Free  Church  of  Italy"  is  tanother  Presb}i;eri£ 
body  in  the  land  of  the  olive  and  vine.     It  has  congre 


OF  P1(E8I}YTERIANISM.  45 

gations  in  iieaiiv  all  the  iinportaiit  cities  of  tlie  country, 
and  is  doing  a  great  work.  A  movement  lias  been  on 
foot  for  a  long  time,  not  yet  successful,  for  a  union  of 
the  Waldenses  or  Yaudois  and  the  Free  Church  of  Italy 
dn  one  areat  Italian  church. 


o 


CHAPTEK  YI. 

The  X()l^^H^YEsTERX  Ktaii.--The  Culdees. 

FF  the  Avest  coast  of  Scotland,  in  tlie  midst  of  ;i 
proverbially  stormy  sea,  lies  a  small  island,  tlii<M- 
miles  long  by  one-and-a-lialf  wide,  called  lona.  This 
island  was,  in  the  early  centuries,  the  light  which  sIioik' 
upon  all  the  northern  countries  round  about.  Dr.  John- 
son, who  had  no  love  for  anything  Scotch,  said,  "  That 
man  is  little  to  be  envied  whose  patriotism  would  not 
gain  force  on  the  plains  of  Maiuiilion^  or  whose  piety 
Avould  not  grow  warmer  among  the  ruins  of  lonal 
Wordsworth  calls  it  the  "  Glory  of  the  West,"  and  sings  : 

' '  lona's  saints,  forgetting  not  past  days, 

Garlands  sliall  wear  of  amaranthine  bloom. 
While  heaven's  vast  sea  of  voices  chants  their  praise. 
Homeward  we  turn,  isle  of  Columba's  cell, 

Wliere  christian  piety's  sonl-cheeriug  spark 
(Kindled  from  heaven  between  the  light  and  dark 
Of  time)  shone  like  tlie  morning  star,  farewell !" 

On  this  island,  adorned  with  the  perfection  of  natur.il 
beauty,  around  which  ever  thunchu'  the  restless  waves. 
was  the  burial  place  of  the  Scottish  kings.  Hert^  a\ 
the  grave  of  Kenneth,  the  first  king  of  Scotland;  and 
Shakespeare  makes  Macduff  say  of  the  murdered  Dun- 
can, he  was  "  carried  to  Colmes  Kill,  the  sacred  store- 
house of  his  predecessors,  and  guardian  of  his  bones." 
And  Colmes  Kill,  or  lona,  at  last  received  also  the  body 
46 


THE  PEOrLE's  HISTOHY  OF  PRESDYTERIANISM.  47 

of  Macbeth.  The  reason  it  became  the  burial  place  of 
royalty  was  because  it  was  the  centre  and  source  of  the 
religion  of  their  ancestors,  and  the  old  ruins  of  its  re- 
ligious edifices  possessed  a  sacredness  derived  from 
their  important  place  in  history.  It  has  long  been  a 
custom  to  lay  the  ashes  of  the  dead  in  a  church-yard 
beneath  the  shadow  of  the  house  of  God.  It  was  from 
lona  Scotland  received  the  gospel,  through  the  agency 
of  the  Culdee  Church ;  and  not  only  Scotland,  but  parts 
of  England,  Ireland,  many  smaller  islands  of  the  British 
group,  and  even  places  on  the  northern  shores  of  the 
continent,  were  visited  by  their  missionaries.  Tertul- 
lian,  the  great  christian  writer  of  the  second  century^ 
who  was  born  about  sixty  years  after  the  death  of  John, 
the  last  of  the  apostles,  says  of  Scotland :  ''  Britanorum 
incKX-essa  Iiomanis  loea  Christo  vero  suhdita'' — "those 
})arts  of  Britain  (/.  e.,  northern  Scotland)  that  were  in- 
accessible to  the  Romans  had  become  subject  to  Christ." 
Many  historians  contend  that  the  Christianity  of  these 
islands  did  not  come  by  way  of  Rome,  but  was  imported 
direct  by  missionaries  from  Asia  Minor.  The  historian, 
Neander,  says  that  "the  pecuHarity  of  the  later  British 
church  is  evidence  against  its  origin  from  Rome;  for 
in  many  ritual  matters  it  departed  from  the  usage  of 
the  Romish  church,  and  agreed  much  more  nearly  with 
the  churches  of  Asia  Minor.  It  Avithstood  for  a  long 
time  the  authority  of  the  Romish  papacy.  This  circum- 
stance would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  Britons  had  re- 
ceived their  Christianity,  either  immediately  or  through 
Gaul,  from  Asia  Minor,  a  thing  quite  possible  by  means 
of  commercial  intercourse."  Spottiswood,  the  Scottish 
historian,   writes:  "I  verily  think  that,    under  Domi- 


48  THE  people's  hihtopy 

tiaii's  peiseeutioiis,  some  of  John's  disciples  first 
preaclied  tlie  gospel  in  tliis  kingdom."  Buchanan,  in 
his  "History  of  Scotland,"  says,  "The  Scots  Avere 
taught  Christianity  by  the  disciples  of  the  Apostle  John ;" 
and  that  "  many  christians  of  Britain,  fearing  the  cruelty 
of  Domitian,  took  their  journey  to  Scotland,  of  whom 
many  famous,  hoth  in  learning  and  integrity  of  life, 
stayed  and  lixed  their  habitation  therein."  The  weight 
of  historical  testimony  seems  to  be  in  favor  of  the  view 
that  Christianity  was  introduced  into  Scotland  very  soon 
after  the  apostolic  era. 

The  early  Church  of  Scotland  Avas  largely  Presby- 
terian in  its  doctrine  and  government.  By  the  invasion 
of  the  Saxons,  England  was  again  made  heathen,  but 
Caledonia  was  not  .concpiered  by  them  any  more  than 
by  the  Komans,  and  Christianity  continued  to  flourish 
there  and  in  Ireland  after  it  had  been  suppressed  in 
the  South.  Parts  of  Ireland  and  Scotland  in  those 
days  were  inhabited,  among  other  races,  by  the  Celts. 
It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  patron  saint  of  Ireland, 
St.  Patrick,  was  a  Scotchman,  while  St.  Columba,  the 
great  missionary  of  Scotland,  was  an  Irishman  of  the 
family  of  the  kings  of  Ulster.  St.  Patrick  did  not  in- 
troduce Christianity  into  Ireland,  though  he  preached 
the  gospel,  and  did  much  for  the  religious  advancement 
of  the  people.  It  had  existed  there  several  centuries, 
before.  He  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth 
century,  and  died  465  A.  D.,  and  history  shows  that  he 
Avas  far  more  like  a  Presbyterian  than  a  Roman  Catholic 

A  hundred  years  afterwards,  563  A.  D.,  Columl 
gained  possession  of  lona,  and  made  it  the  headquartei 
of  a  great  missionary  Avork  for  the  islands  and  Scotlanc 


OF  PBESBYTERIANISM.  49 

''He  was  a  man  of  lofty  stature  and  noble  bearing; 
could  express  himself  with  ease  and  gracefulness,  and 
had  a  clear,  commanding  voice.  He  had  quick  per- 
ception and  great  force  of  character,  one  of  those  mas- 
terful minds  which  mould  and  sway  others  by  mere 
force  of  contact."  He  was  devoted  to  the  study  of 
God's  word,  and  spent  much  time  in  copying  it,  as  also 
in  secret  prayer.  An  imperious  temper,  which  he  did 
not  always  succeed  in  curbing,  caused  him  to  be,  not 
only  an  object  of  terror  to  his  enemies,  but  of  awe  to 
his  fi'iends.  Altogether  his  character  was  a  noble  one, 
and  the  work  he  accomplished  entitles  him  to  be  called 
the  apostle  of  Caledonia.  In  company  with  twelve 
companions  from  Ireland,  he  established  a  mission  sta- 
tion and  college  on  lona.  Some  writers  have  spoken 
of  this  as  a  monastery,  and  of  those  who  inhabited  it 
as  monks ;  but  the  fact  that  they  were  allowed  to  marry, 
and  that  many  of  them  did  have  wives,  is  sufficient 
proof  to  the  contrary.  This  college  and  mission  sent 
out  preachers  over  the  whole  of  Scotland,  converting 
its  inhabitants  to  Christianity,  through  parts  of  Britain, 
France,  Germany  and  Switzerland,  doing  more  during 
the  sixth,  seventh  and  eighth  centuries  to  spread  the 
knowledge  of  a  pure  gospel  than  all  other  agencies 
combined.  It  was  the  great  missionary  organization 
of  those  ages. 

Milman,  in  his  "Latin  Christianity,"  says  that  when 
these  missionaries  from  the  North  encountered  in  Eng- 
land those  from  Eome,  they  could  not  agree,  and  that 
"they  were  opposed  on  certain  points  of  discipline, 
hardly  of  less  importance  than  vital  truths  of  the  gos- 
pel."    King  Oswald,  of  Northumbria,  who  had  before 


50  THE  people's  history 

found  shelter  with  the  Culdees  in  lona,  and  had  in- 
vited them  down  to  christianize  his  people,  was  at 
length  persuaded  to  commit  their  religious  instruction 
to  the  Roman  monks,  and  the  Culdee  missionaries  were 
obliged  to  retire  to  the  North.  Neander,  in  writing  of 
this  conflict,  says,  "It  became  necessary  for  men  to 
decide  between  Roman  and  Scottish  church  influences ; 
and  the  manner  in  which  this  decision  was  made  could 
not  fail  to  be  attended  with  the  most  important  effects 
in  the  shaping  of  ecclesiastical  relations  over  all  Eng- 
land ;  for  had  the  Scottish  tendency  prevailed,  England 
would  have  ol)tained  a  more  free  church  constitution, 
and  a  reaction  against  the  Romish  hierarchical  system 
would  have  continued  to  go  forth  from  this  quarter.'' 
It  is  clear  that  the  Church  of  Scotland  and  that  of 
Rome  did  contend  in  those  early  days  for  possession 
of  England,  and  that  Rome  won  the  day,  but  only  for 
England.  It  is  also  plain  that  the  Scottish  church  is 
older  than  the  English,  and  that  it  had  preached  the 
gospel  to  the  English,  as  an  old  Episcopal  writer  says, 
"  before  the  monk  Augustine  and  his  successors  sowed 
their  tares  among  them."  The  church  of  that  early 
time  was  Culdee,  and  the  Culdee  church  was  substan- 
stantially  Presbyterian.  Archbishop  Usher  writes: 
"We  read  in  Nennius  that  at  the  beginning  St.  Patrick 
founded  (in  Ireland)  three  hundi-ed  and  sixty-five 
churches,  and  ordained  three  hundred  and  sixty-five 
bishops,  and  three  thousand  presbyters  or  elders."  As 
there  were  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  bishops  and 
three  hundred  and  sixty-five  churches,  it  is  clear  that 
these  bishops  were  just  what  Presb}i;erian  bishops  are 
now — pastors,  and  nothing  more.     This  was  in  Ireland, 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  51 

l)ut  St.  Patrick  of  course  established  the  same  church 
government  in  which  he  had  been  trained  in  his  native 
country,  Scotland.  Bishop  Stillingfleet  says :  "  If  we 
may  believe  their  own  historians,  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land was  governed  by  their  Culdei,  as  they  called  their 
presbyters,  without  any  (prelatical)  bishop  over  them." 
A  Romish  bishop,  named  Palladius,  was  sent  up  to 
Scotland  in  the  fifth  century,  but  the  people  refused  to 
recognize  his  authority,  and  rejected  him.  Bede, 
though  indignant  at  their  repudiation  of  the  authority 
of  the  Romish  bishop,  testifies  that  "they  preached 
only  such  works  of  charity  and  piety  as  they  could 
learn  fi'om  the  prophetical,  evangelical  and  apostolical 
writings."  The  English  writers  of  that  age  bear  testi- 
mony to  "their  rejection  of  Romish  ceremonies,  doc- 
trines and  traditions,  the  nakedness  of  their  forms  of 
worship,  and  the  repul)lican  character  of  their  govern- 
ment." D'Aubigne  says:  "lona,  governed  by  a  simple 
elder,  had  become  a  missionary  college.  It  has  been 
called  sometimes  a  monastery,  but  the  dwelling  of  the 
grandson  of  Fergus  (Columba)  in  no  Avise  resembled 
the  popish  convents.  When  its  youthful  inmates  de- 
sired to  spread  the  knowledge  of  Jesus  Christ,  they 
thought  not  of  going  elsewhere  for  Episcopal  ordina- 
tion. Kneeling  in  the  chapel  of  Icolmkill,  they  were 
set  apai-t  by  the  laying  on  of  the  hands  of  the  elder,^ ; 
they  were  called  bishops,  but  remained  obedient  to  the 
elder  or  presbyter  of  lona." 

We  select  one  more  from  the  multitude  of  witnesses 
who  testify  to  the  Presb>i;erianism  of  the  Culdee  Church. 
Ebrard  declares  that  it  was  "  evangelical,  not  only  l^e- 
cause  it  was  free  and  independent  of  Rome,  and  when 


52  .  THE  people's  history 

the  papal  cliiircli  came  into  contact  with  it,  always  and 
obstinately  repudiated  its  authority  under  appeal  to  the 
single  and  supreme  authority  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
hut  ahoye  all,  because  of  its  inner  life  it  Avas  penetrated 
throughout  by  the  main  principles  of  the  eyangelical 
church." 

For  fiye  hundred  years  the  grand  old  Culdee  Church 
struggled  against  the  gigantic  power  of  Rome,  and 
popery  was  at  last  established  in  Scotland,  not  by  the 
consent  of  the  people,  but  by  King  Dayid  I.,  in  A.  D. 
1150,  and  the  final  otherthrow  of  the  ancient  order  did 
not  take  place  until  more  than  a  hundred  years  after- 
wards, when  the  Culdees  of  St.  Andrews  were  sup- 
pressed, A.  D.  1297.  But  after  that  many  of  these 
faithful  men  continued  to  labor  through  the  country  as 
indiyiduals,  and  in  remote  places  they  kept  aliye  the 
pure  religion  of  their  fathers.  Dr.  Smith,  in  his  "  Life 
of  C^olumba,"  says :  "  The  reign  of  terrcn-  in  these  lands 
was  yery  short,  and  the  darkness  of  its  night  was  inter- 
mixed with  many  stars."  In  the  next  century,  in  the 
year  1324  A.  D.,  Pope  John  XXII.,  in  his  bull  for 
anointing  King  Robert  Bruce,  complained  that  there 
were  still  many  heretics  in  Scotland.  Other  Romish 
writers  alleged  the  existence  of  the  old  heresy  in  parts 
of  the  country.  In  1422  James  Risby,  and  in  1481 
Paul  Craw,  were  put  to  death  for  holding  these  doc- 
trines. In  the  glens  of  Scotland,  as  in  the  yalleys  of 
Piedmont,  small  bands  could  still  hv  found  looking  to 
Jesus  Christ  as  the  only  mediator  between  God  and 
man.  Hetherington,  in  his  "History  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland,"  declares  that  "popery  had  not  been  able 
wholly  to  exterminate  the  purer  faith  and  simpler  sys- 


OF  PRESBYTEKIANISM.  53 

teiii  of  the  ancient  Cnldees,  especially  in  Ayrsliiie,  and 
perhaps  also  in  Fife — the  districts  adjacent  to  Ht.  An- 
drews and  lona,  the  earliest  al)odes  and  the  latest  re- 
treats of  primitive  Christianity  in  Scotland,"  and  that "  the 
doctrines  of  the  Culdees  continued  to  survive  h^ng  after 
the  suppression  of  their  forms  of  church  government. 

McLauchlan,  the  latest  historian  of  the  Culdee  Church, 
after  an  exhaustive  investigation  of  the  whole  matter, 
makes  the  following  concluding  statement :  "  It  requires 
l)ut  little  acquaintance  with  Scottish  history  to  observe 
that  the  principles  of  the  old  Culdee  Church  never  were 
eradicated ;  that  during  the  reign  of  the  Roman  Church  in 
the  kingdom  they  continued  to  exist,  exhibiting  them- 
selves occasionally  in  such  outbreaks  as  the  letter  of 
King  Eobert  Bruce  and  his  nobles  to  Pope  John,  on 
the  uprising  of  the  Lollards  of  Kyle,  and  finally  culmi- 
nating in  the  events  of  the  Scottish  Eeformation.  Those 
principles  had  regard,  above  all  things,  to  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  ancient  Scottish  kingdom  and  church. 
They  exist  still,  fresh  and  vigorous  as  ever,  in  the  Scot- 
tish mind ;  nor  is  it  easy  to  say  for  how  much  of  what 
now  distinguishes  Scotland  ecclesiastically,  she  is  in- 
debted to  the  ancient  Culdee  Church.  One  thing  is 
plain,  that  notwithstanding  the  claims  of  the  Church  of 
Rome  and  its  hierarchical  organizations  to  antiquity  in 
Scotland,  she  can  only  claim  four  hundred  of  the  eigh- 
teen hundred  years  that  have  elapsed  since  the  plant- 
ing of  Christianity  in  the  kingdom,  viz.,  the  period  be- 
tween A.  D.  1150,  when  David  established  her,  and 
A.  D.  1550,  when  his  establishment  was  overthrown  by 
the  resuscitation  of  the  old  Scottish  principles  at  the 
Reformation." 


54  THE  rE(3PLE's  HISTOllY  OF  l'EE8BYTEKIANISM. 

When  the  Reforiiiation  of  the  sixteenth  century  l)e- 
canie  estabhshed  in  Scotland,  it  was  not,  as  dn  England, 
under  the  patronage  of  kings  and  the  government,  but 
was  from  the  people,  in  many  of  whose  minds  the  em- 
l)ers  of  religious  lil)erty  still  glowed,  and  they  forced 
Presbyterianism  upon  their  rulers,  as  their  rulers  had 
formerly  forced  popery  upon  them.  The  Reformation 
in  England  Avas  largely  controlled  l)y  the  throne,  but  in 
Scotland  it  was  from  the  people  to  the  throne ;  so  in  the 
one  case  it  kept  the  form  of  Episcopac}^,  or  royalty,  while 
in  the  other  its  principle  was  self-goyernment,  or  Pres- 
ley terianism. 

The  object  of  this  chapter  is  to  show  that  the  early 
Christianity  of  Scotland  was  essentially  Presbyterian, 
and  that  it  Avas  brought,  not  from  Rome,  Imt  from  Asia 
Minor;  that  it  sul)sisted  doAyn  to  the  middle  of  the 
twelfth  century ;  that  eyen  then  it  was  not  wholly  de- 
stroyed ;  and  that,  after  four  hundred  years  of  popish 
rule,  it  burst  forth  again  in  full  power,  and  has  con- 
tinued to  flourish  to  the  present  day.  So  Aye  see  there 
A\  ere  at  least  tAvo  stars,  the  Waldeiises  and  the  Culdees, 
shining  in  the  gloomy  night  of  the  dark  ages.  God  has 
never  left  himself  Avithout  a  Avitness  from  the  days  of 
Adam,  nor  ever  Avill,  till  time  shall  be  no  more. 


CHAPTEE  VII. 

The   Night   of   Popery  and  the  Morning  Twilight. 
Augustine  and  Hu88. 

THE  great  revolutions  of  history  have  not  come  ahoiit 
in  most  cases  hy  sudden  and  startling  clianges,  l)ut 
]  )y  gradnal  processes.  This  has  been  particularly  charac- 
teristic of  revolutions  which  have  gone  backward  :  those 
slow  readjustments  whereby  the  liberties  of  the  people 
have  been  silently  absorbed  by  an  aml)itious  power. 
The  despotism  of  popery  did  not  spring  up  in  a  night. 
It  w  as  im2:)ossible  that  the  great  republic  of  the  chris- 
tian church  of  the  early  centuries  should  be,  by  one 
stroke,  divested  of  its  inherent  libei-ty.  The  pastor  of 
the  congregation  at  Rome  began  to  claim  authority 
over  his  brethren  very  far  back  in  ancient  history,  but 
not  until  the  eighth  century  w^ere  his  pretensions  re- 
cognized and  admitted  by  the  church  at  large.  Nor 
w^as  it  then  without  earnest  and  determined  opposition. 
It  w^as  not  to  be  expected  that  such  assumptions  as 
those  put  forth  by  the  rising  ecclesiastical  monarchy 
Avould  l)e  willingly  conceded.  They  were  met  by  oppo- 
sition, determined  and  persistent,  the  destruction  of 
wdiich  is  a  history  of  persecution  and  blood. 

As  the  old  Roman  empire  fell  to  pieces  from  decay, 

a  new^  empire  arose  out  of  its  ruins,  and  that  was  an 

ecclesiastical  one.     Instead  of  a  Caesar,  dictating  to  the 

nations,  we  have  an  alleged  follower  of  him  who  said, 

55 


56  THE  people's  histopy 

"My  kiiiodoni  is  not  of  this  world,"  claiming  autliorit^- 
over  kings,  not  only  assuming  tlie  right  to  control  the 
consciences  of  God's  people,  hut  also  to  say  what  ciyil 
nilers  they  should  seiwe,  thus  appropriating  to  himself 
all  power,  secular  and  sacred.  In  the  sphere  of  re- 
ligion, the  Pope  took  the  place  of  Christ,  who  rules  his 
church  in  the  exercise  of  three  great  offices,  those  of  a 
prophet,  a  priest,  and  a  king,  thus  realizing  completely 
the  idea  of  an  anti-christ  or  usurper.  Do  they  not  claim 
that  the  mass  is  a  perpetual  sacrifice  offered  for  the  sins 
of  men  l)y  priests  who  deriye  their  authority  from  the 
Pope  ?  Do  they  not  likewise  claim  the  right  of  autho- 
ritatiye  intercessi(^n,  and  of  conferring  the  forgiyeness 
of  sins?  As  the  prophet  of  the  church,  does  he  not  set 
himself  up  as  the  great  teacher,  claiming  infalliliihtj  \ 
And  as  a  king,  does  he  not  exercise  an  authority  abso- 
lute and  final  oyer  all  his  subjects,  claiming  power  for 
this  world  and  also  for  the  next?  Though  this  power 
had  been  boldly  claimed  for  centuries,  it  was  not  for- 
mally consented  to  in  its  full  extent  by  the  church,  as 
an  organized  body,  until  1546,  the  year  of  Luther's 
death,  at  the  Council  of  Trent;  nor  was  it  fully  and 
clearly  stated  in  all  its  hideousness  until  the  pronuTlga- 
tion  of  the  decree  of  Papal  Infallibility  in  1870,  by  the 
Vatican  Council  at  Eome.  This  was  not  the  culmina- 
tion of  the  power  of  popery ;  it  had  culminated  long 
ago,  and  begun  to  decay  as  one  of  the  great  forces  of  i 
Christendom.  It  has  neyer  recoyered  from  the  stagger- 
ing blow  dealt  by  the  Reformation  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, and  it  never  will.  The  council  at  Trent,  in  1546, 
and  that  of  1870,  in  Rome,  were  but  conyulsiye  effoi 
to  brace  up,  by  boldly  stating  its  pretensions,  a  y; 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  57 

body  which  was  beginning  to  feel  the  chill  of  old  age 
and  decay. 

But  the  despotism  of  Rome  has  not  at  any  time  been 
consented  to  by  every  part  of  the  church.  The  vast 
body  of  the  Greek  Church,  crystallized  about  the 
Patriarchate  of  Constantinople  by  a  similar  process  of 
development,  which  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  a 
rival  ecclesiastical  empire  in  the  east,  nearly,  if  not 
quite  as  anti-christian  in  its  assumptions  as  that  of  the 
papacy.  God,  however,  who  lives  and  reigns  on  earth, 
reserved  to  himself  faithful  bands  of  followers,  probably 
much  larger  than  is  generally  known,  in  secluded  spots, 
who  contended  for  the  truth  at  the  risk,  and  often  at  the 
cost,  of  their  lives.  We  are  not  to  understand  that  up 
to  the  Reformation  period  there  were  no  christians. 
There  were  thousands  of  them  in  Scotland,  in  the  Alps, 
as  well  as  perhaps  in  other  divinely  favored  places,  and 
multitudes,  even  in  the  Church  of  Rome  itself,  avIio,  in 
the  midst  of  superstition  and  tyranny,  still  held  the  es- 
sential truths  of  the  gospel,  and  refused  to  receive  the 
authority  of  a  pope  in  place  of  that  of  Christ. 

Altogether  the  greatest  man  in  religious  history,  from 
Paul  to  Calvin,  was  Aurelius  Augustine,  commonly  called 
St.  Augustine,  who  flourished  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  fourth  and  the  earlier  part  of  the  fifth  centuries. 
"  Paul  begat  Augustine,  and  Augustine  begat  Calvin," 
said  a  celel)rated  infidel  writer,  and  it  is  true.  Augus- 
tine elaborated  the  great  doctrines  of  salvation  by  free 
grace,  set  forth  by  all  writers  of  the  inspired  word, 
notably  by  the  apostle  to  the  Gentiles,  and  advocated 
powerfidly  that  theology  Avhich  was  afterwards  syste- 
matiealh'  stated  by  John  Calvin,  who  was  practically 

5 


58  THE  people's  history 

his  pupil,  though  separated  from  him  by  a  thousand 
years.  This  theology  has  heeu  variously  termed 
Pauline,  Augustine,  Calvinistie,  or  Presbyterian.  Au- 
gustine was  born  and  lived  in  noi*thern  Afiica.  In  his 
youth  he  was  sensual  and  wicked,  but  became  converted 
under  the  instrumentality  of  the  teaching,  example  and 
prayers  of  his  mother,  Monica,  whose  almost  romantic 
devotion  to  her  son  has  gone  into  history  as  the  symliol 
of  maternal  affection.  Amply  was  her  love  rewarded, 
for  his  name  stands  among  the  highest  in  the  wc^rhVs 
catalogue  of  theologians.  His  opponent  was  a  Scotcli 
or  Irish  monk,  Pelagius,  the  author  of  a  system  of  doc- 
trine called  Pelagianism,  which  has  come  down  to  (^ur 
own  times,  denying  the  vicarious  headship  of  Adam 
and  original  sin,  and  giving  undue  value  to  works,  in 
the  scheme  of  salvation.  Augustine's  life  work  may  be 
said  to  have  been  mainly  drawn  out  by  his  controversy 
with  Pelagius;  and  in  it  he  laid  down  the  principles 
which,  ten  centuries  afterward,  produced  that  great  re- 
ligious revolution  called  the  Reformation,  of  which  he 
may  well  be  called  the  ancestor.  And  that  Eeforma- 
tion  is  the  most  remarkable  occurrence  in  all  the  annals 
of  Christianity  since  the  time  of  its  great  author. 

But  Pelagianism,  so  ably  refuted  by  Augustine,  liad 
too  strong  an  ally  in  the  depraved  nature  of  man  to  be 
easily  overthrown,  and  it  spread  like  wildfire  over  a 
great  part  of  the  church,  sowing  the  seeds  of  much  of 
the  corruption  which  followed.  As  the  simplicity  of 
Presbyterian  government  disappeared  before  the  rise 
of  the  hierarchy,  the  great  twin  principle  (^f  doctrin<'. 
salvation  by  grace,  passed  away  with  it.  It  was  always 
held  in  some  portions  of  the  church,  and  was  never,  in 


OF  niESBYTERIANISM.  59 

those  dcivH,  (leiioiiiiced,  l)ut  tlie  opposite  doctrine,  salva- 
tion l)y  works,  was  (piietly  put  into  its  place.  Pela- 
gianisni  easily  led  to  penance,  works  of  supererogation, 
and  will- worship.  X  later  writer  said,  "It  is  necessary 
to  change  our  dress  and  food;  we  must  put  on  sack- 
cloth and  ashes ;  we  must  renounce  all  comfoi-t  and 
adorning  of  the  body,  and  fall  down  before  the  priests." 
The  same  tendency  came  at  length  to  voluntary  flagella- 
tions, and  nobles  and  peasants  walked  together  through 
city  and  country  by  thousands,  with  no  other  covering 
than  a  cloth  al)out  their  loins,  in  the  cold  of  winter  and 
the  heat  of  summer,  lashing  themselves  with  whips  and 
scourges,  for  the  salvation  of  their  souls.  Pilgrimages 
to  Konie  fi"om  all  parts  of  the  world  became  the  fashion, 
and  as  many  as  200,000  pilgrims  visited  the  city  in  one 
month.  All  who  came  were  expected  to  bring  costly 
presents  to  the  Pontiff,  and  the  treasuries  of  the  church 
thus  began  the  absorption  of  the  wealth  of  nations, 
which  became  such  a  prodigious  evil  in  subsequent 
times.  Those  who  came  bringing  gifts  were  rew^arded 
for  their  devotion  by  plenary  indulgence ;  so  that  all 
who  wished  to  commit  some  great  sin,  or  whose  con- 
sciences lashed  them  under  a  sense  of  guilt,  had  the 
strongest  possible  reason  for  making  a  contribution  to 
the  church.  Thus  popery,  with  its  despotic  assumption 
of  authority  over  the  soul,  and  its  substitution  of  human 
for  divine  works,  went  on  developing  its  inherent  wick- 
edness. 

But  even  then  the  greed  of  the  papal  power  was  not 
satisfied,  and  provision  was  made  for  the  sale  of  indul- 
gences in  nearly  all  the  cities  and  villages  of  Christen- 
dom, and  it  was  this  very   wickedness,  this  hideous 


60  THE  PEOI'LE's  histouy 

traffic  ill  iiiiiiiortal  souls  wliicli,  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
occasioned  that  mighty  convulsion  which  destroyed 
popery  in  half  of  Europe.  Such  a  system  of  carnality 
could  but  lead  to  the  deepest  moral  corruption.  The 
clergy  led  the  people  in  the  grossest  sins.  Every  kind 
of  debauchery  was  practiced  by  the  religious  teachers 
of  the  people ;  virtue  was  by  no  means  common  among 
them,  and  a  German  bishop  declared  that  in  one  year 
eleven  thousand  priests  presented  themselves  to  him,  to 
pay  the  tax  assessed  by  the  church  upon  their  illegiti- 
mate offspring.  It  would  be  indecent  to  describe  the 
drunkenness,  the  gambling,  the  seductions,  the  mur- 
ders, and  other  infamies  which  disgraced  the  priests  of 
the  period  immediately  preceding  the  Eeformation.  We 
say  no  more,  but  drop  the  veil  upon  the  horrid  scenes ; 
so  much  for  the  fruits  of  Pelagianism.  Enough  of  this 
dreadful  darkness. 

Let  us  look  for  rays  of  light.  In  former  chapters  we 
have  seen  how  the  Waldenses  and  Culdees  still  con- 
tended for  the  faith  once  delivered  to  the  saints.  There 
are  others  to  be  mentioned;  they  are  the  heroes  of 
Bohemia  and  Moravia.  It  was  in  the  ninth  century 
that  Christianity  was  introduced  into  that  country,  and 
not  from  Rome,  but  from  the  east.  The  clergy  werc^ 
allowed  to  marry;  the  cup  as  well  as  tlit*  bread  was 
given  to  the  laity  in  the  sacrament  of  the  Holy  Supper, 
and  pul)lic  worship  was  held  in  the  language  of  the 
people.  The  Church  of  Rome  long  strove  to  bring 
Bohemia  under  its  sway,  and  though  it  did  succeed  in 
the  fourteenth  century,  the  people  were  never  wholly 
subdued.  The  history  of  the  Church  of  Bohemia  is 
one  of  the  most  heroic,  as  well  as  the  most  melancholy, 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  61 

chapters  in  the  story  of  human  existence.  Persecuted 
and  crushed,  it  was  only  for  one  hundred  years  they 
gave  outward  submission  to  the  popes,  and  in  the 
fifteenth  century  the  unconquered  spirit  of  Hberty  and 
love  of  truth  again  asserted  itself.  Nor  has  that  mart^^T 
church  ever  been  wholly  destroyed.  It  has  survived 
through  incredible  trials  to  the  end  of  the  nineteentb 
century,  with  brighter  prospects  for  growth  and  useful- 
ness. It  is  now  one  of  the  factors  in  the  great  Alliance 
of  Presl:)yterian  or  Reformed  Churches  throughout  the 
world. 

The  Reformed  Church  of  Bohemia  has  associated 
with  it  the  luminous  name  of  John  Huss.  Wicklift'e,  of 
England,  has  been  called  the  ''Morning  Star  of  the  Re- 
formation," and  Huss,  "its  John  the  Baptist."  There 
is  reason  to  suppose  that  the  Bohemian  was  much  in- 
fluenced by  the  Avritings  of  Wicklifl*e.  Huss  was  rector 
of  the  University  of  Prague,  at  that  time  one  of  the 
most  influential  seats  of  learning  in  Europe.  He  was 
an  able  and  fearless  preacher,  an  accomplished  scholar 
and  devoted  lover  of  his  country.  His  struggles  in  com- 
ing to  the  truth  remind  us  of  those  of  Augustine ;  but  he 
was  fully  possessed  of  it,  and  it  became  the  supreme 
rule  of  his  conduct.  Even  the  Jesuit  writer,  Balbinus, 
is  constrained  to  say  of  "this  pale,  thin  man,  in  mean 
attire,"  that  "  his  pure  morahty,  his  earnest  life,  his  care- 
lined  countenance,  his  sympathetic  kindness,  breathed 
with  more  wondrous  power  than  all  the  eloquence  that 
fell  from  his  lips."  He  preached  against  the  corruptions 
of  the  clergy  and  laity,  and  boldly  asserted  that  Christ, 
and  not  the  pope,  was  the  head  of  the  church.  Such 
preaching  as  this  was  all  a  man's  life  Avas  worth  in  those 


62  THE  people's  HTSTOTtY 

lialc3'on  days  of  peppery.  Joliii  Huss  was  condeniiied 
for  heresy  by  the  famous  Council  of  (Vmstaiiee  in  1415, 
iind/  required  to  recant  or  die.  He  chose  the  latter 
alt'^rnative,  and  when  the  council  formally  committed 
him  to  the  devil,  he,  standing  reverently  with  uplifted 
1  lands,  commended  himself  to  the  mercy  of  Christ. 
After  he  had  heen  tied  to  the  stake,  and  the  fagots  piled 
ahout  him,  he  was  given  a  final  opportunity  to  save  his 
life  hy  the  surrender  of  his  faith.  His  answer  was : 
"  God  is  my  witness  that  I  have  never  taught  or  preached 
that  which  false  witnesses  have  testified  against  me. 
He  knows  that  the  great  ol)jec^t  of  my  preaching  and 
writing  Avas  to  convert  men  from  sin.  In  the  truth  of 
that  gospel  which  hitherto  I  have  written,  taught,  and 
preached,  I  now  joyfully  die."  Tlie  fires  were  then 
lighted  arcmnd  him,  and  his  voice,  repeating;  the  prayer 
"  Kyrie  Eleison,"  was  so<m  stifled  in  the  smoke.  When 
naught  was  left  of  him  but  ashes,  these  were  carefully 
removed,  together  with  the  ground  on  which  they  lay, 
and  cast  into  the  Ehine.  But  his  testimony  could  not 
be  destroyed;  God's  truth  is  t^ternal,  and  from  those 
northern  countries  whither  the  Rhine  carried  the  ashes 
of  John  Huss,  were  to  come,  after  a  century,  the  events 
which  would  shake  the  foundations  of  the  hierarchy  of 
Rome  from  centre  to  circumference,  and  send  it  reeling 
downward  to  its  final  ruin. 

AVhen  the  news  of  the  shameful  treatment  of  Huss 
reached  Prague,  where  he  was  ]>reaclier  t(^  the  cpieeii 
and  rector  of  the  university,  the  intensest  indignation 
was  aroused.  The  denial  to  the  people,  by  the  council, 
of  the  cup  in  the  sacrament  was  bitterly  condemned,  and 
the  cup  b(H'ame  the  symbol  of  their  faith.      To  this  day 


OF  rRESBYTERIANI8M.  63 

it  is  seen  on  their  tombstones,  engraved  on  tlieir  pulpits, 
and  emblazoned  on  tlie  insignia  of  tlieir  eliurcli.     But 
a  great  part  of  tlie  nation  adopted  the  faith  of  H'out 
and  all  that  was  left  to  the  anti-christ  of  Eome  wasip-       , 
destroy  them  with  tire  antl  sword,  and  in  the  year  14^),     / 
four  thousand  of  God's  saints  were  put  to  death.  *i 

But  lorighter  days  were  eoniing.  The  passing  trav- 
eller, in  the  old  cathedral  of  8t.  Peter,  Calvin's  ehiu-ch, 
in  Geneva,  now  reads  the  name  of  the  l)ishop  who  pre- 
sided at  that  memoral^le  council  of  (\)nstance,  Jean  de 
Brognier,  on  a  black  marl)le  slal)  in  the  floor,  where  be- 
low rest  his  bones,  and  over  which  have  trod  the  feet  of 
multitudes  who  have  thronged  that  stately  edifice  to  hear 
the  gospel  of  John  Huss  and  the  Keformation  preached 
all  these  three  hundred  years. 


CHAPTER  YIII. 

/ 
/         The  Ascending  Day  of  the  Reformation. 

/  irNDULGENTIA  Plenapja  Quotidiana  Peiipetua 
JL  Pro  Viyis  et  Defunctis."  Perjyetaal  huUdgences, 
(Jd'ily  for  tJte  Jirhig  and  tJie  dead.  This  inscription,  in 
Latin,  may  be  seen  to-day  inscribed  over  the  doors  of^ 
many  of  the  principal  churches  in  the  city  of  Rome.! 
Stand  at  the  entrance  of  the  hoary  Pantheon,  a  temple 
built  for  heathen  Avorship  before  the  l)irtli  of  Christ| 
which  has  witnessed  two  idolatries,  promising  now  t( 
outlive  the  second,  as  it  did  the  first,  and  read,  in] 
bold  characters,  these  suggestiye  words,  for  thereby 
hangs  a  tale — that  of  the  great  Reformation  (^f  the  six- 
teenth centmy.  The  sale  of  indulgences,  and  the  un- 
blushing wickedness  it  entailed,  liberated  the  mighty 
forces  which  had  been  preparing  in  the  providence  of 
God  to  convulse  Christendom.  It  was  the  ignition  of 
the  mine,  the  explosion  of  which  still  reverberates  to 
the  ends  of  the  earth. 

This  dates  from  the  erection  of  St.  Peter's  Cathedral 
in  Rome.  It  is  a  striking  fact  that  the  building  of  this 
most  magnificent  of  all  churches  occasioned  the  Refor- 
mation. It  was  to  raise  the  stupendous  sum  of  money 
necessary  to  build  St.  Peter's  that  venders  of  indul- 
gences were  sent,  licensed  by  the  Pope,  throughout 
Europe.  Millions  were  poured  fi'oni  this  source  into 
the  holy  treasury  at  Rome  ;  l)ut  the  change  was  at  hand, 
(lod  had  prepared  a  crisis,  and  now  prepared  a  man. 
Martin  Luther,  the  sledge-hammer  of  the  Reformation, 
64 


THE  PEOPLE  S  HI8T011Y  OF  PltESBYTERIANISM.  ()5 

;in  xlngustinian  monk,  whose  birthplace  was  Eislebeii, 
( rermany,  was  the  man.  This  unique  personaHty  was 
to  become  the  leading  figure  of  his  time.  A  devout 
and  an  independent  thinker,  Luther  searched  the  Scrip- 
tures. ''The  just  shall  hve  by  faith"  (Romans  i.  17),  V 
became  the  text  of  his  life,  and  his  work,  the  elaboration 
of  that  truth.  Beholding  the  corruptions  of  the  times, 
i  he  deplored  them,  but  ardently  loved  the  church  in 
which  they  were  tolerated,  hoping  to  see  it  purified, 
and  it  was  only  with  the  greatest  reluctance  that  lie 
separated  himself  from  Rome,  when  he  gave  up  all  hope 
of  its  recovery  from  vice.  He  was  sent  as  an  envoy 
from  his  order,  the  Augustinians,  to  the  Papal  See,  and 
when,  after  a  long  journey,  he  approached  the  historic 
city,  the  queen  of  the  world  and  the  mistress  of  the 
church,  and  looked  upon  its  glittering  palaces  and 
domes,  he  prostrated  himself  upon  the  ground,  exclaim- 
ing, "Holy  Rome,  I  salute  thee!"  -But  what  a  disap- 
pointment Avas  in  store  for  this  good  man  when  he  found 
that  the  city  and  church  of  his  love  were  wallowing  in 
sin  and  lust!  His  mind  soon  changed,  and  he  wrote, 
"If  there  be  a  hell,  Rome  is  built  over  it;"  for  the 
eternal  city  shoAved  itself  more  Hke  an  infernal  city  than 
the  holy  city  of  his  dreams.  One  day  the  hollowness 
and  sham  of  the  Avliole  Pelagian  system  of  salvation  by 
works  came  over  the  mind  of  the  Augustinian  monk 
with  irresistible  poAver.  It  was  Avliile  he  AAas  climbing 
on  his  knees,  according  to  custom,  the  holy  stairs  over 
which  our  Lord  is  declared,  hj  an  unscrupulous  priest- 
lood,  to  have  passed  as  he  descended  from  Pilate's 
judgment  hall.  There  could  be  no  fitter  place  for  the 
spell  to  be  l^roken  than  on  this  stairway.     Here  the 


Olj  THE  PEOrLE's  HISTORY 

light  from  lieaveii  burst  clearly  upon  Lutlier's  soul,  and 
it  was  in  the  words,  "  The  just  shall  live  1)y  faith!"  He 
arose,  retraced  his  steps  sadly  to  Germany,  prepared 
for  the  work  God  had  for  him  to  do. 

Luther  retiu'ued  to  Germany  searching  the  Scriptures, 
ever  getting  more  light  and  imparting  it  to  his  students 
in  the  University  (^f  AVittenberg,  of  which  he  was  a  jjro- 
fessor,  and  t<^  the  people  of  his  pastoral  charge.  Tet- 
zel,  the  vendor  of  indulgences,  now  appears.on  the  scene. 
Luther  exposed  the  traffic  without  mercy.  To  show  tlie 
folly  of  this  wretched  business,  it  is  said  that  a  hardy 
German  l)ought  from  Tetzel.an  indulgence  alloAving  him 
to  chastise  a  man  against  whom  he  had  a  grudge.  He 
proceeded,  on  a  convenient  occasion,  to  exercise  his 
])urchased  privilege  upon  the  object  of  his  dislike,  by 
giving  him  a  sound  beating  in  the  public  highway;  and 
Tetzel  himself  Avas  the  man !  AVlien  the  aggrieved  in- 
dulgence seller  appealed  to  the  civil  magistrate  he  re- 
fused to  interfere,  and  go  behind  the  writ  signed  by 
Tetzel's  own  hand.  This  sale  of  indulgences  occa- 
si(^ned  the  preparation  by  Luther  of  the  celebrated 
ninety-five  theses,  or  doctrinal  statements,  denouncing 
the  iniquity,  which  he  nailed  on  the  door  of  the  Castle 
Church  in  Wittenberg  in  the  year  1517,  the  date  usually 
considered  as  marking  the  beginning  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. The  following  are  extracts  from  this  famous  docui 
ment : 
"  Disputation  to  Explain  the  Virtue  of  Indulgences.' 

"  In  charity  and  in  the  endeavor  to  bring  the  tnith  t( 
light,  a  disputation  on  the  following  pro])ositions  will 
l)e  held  at  AVittenberg,  presided  over  by  the  Reverend 
Father  Martin  Luther. 


OF  PRESRYTERIANISM.  67 

"The  old  man  is  the  vanity  of  vanities;  lie  is  the 
universal  vanitv,  and  he  makes  other  creatnres  vain, 
whatever  goodness  may  he  in  them. 

"  The  old  man  is  called  'the  flesh,'  not  merely  ])eoause 
he  is  led  by  the  desires  of  the  Hesh,  Imt  also,  because, 
though  he  should  even  be  chaste,  virtuous  and  just,  h<' 
is  not  l)orn  again  of  God,  by  the  Spirit. 

"A  man  who  is  a  stranger  to  God  cannot  keep  the 
commandments  of  God,  nor  prepare  himself,  Avhollv 
or  in  part,  to  receive  grace,  but  remains  necessarily  un- 
der sin. 

"The  will  of  man,  without  divine  grace,  is  not  free, 
but  enslaved,  and  willing  to  l)e  so. 

"Jesus  Christ,  our  strength,  our  righteousness,  He 
who  searches  the  heai*ts  and  reins,  is  the  only  discerner 
and  judge  of  our  deserts. 

"Since  all  things  are  possil)le  through  Christ  to  him 
that  l)eHeveth,  it  is  superstiticnis  to  seek  ior  other  help, 
either  in  man's  will  or  in  the  saints. 

"  Those  who  are  unable  to  attend  personally,  may  dis- 
cuss the  cpiestion  with  us  by  letter.  In  the  name  of  tlu^ 
Lord  Jesus  Christ.     Amen." 

The  promulgation  of  these  "theses"  set  all  Euro]ie 
to  thinking,  and  brought  the  church  with  its  abuses 
before  the  liar  of  the  learning  (^f  the  schools,  the  com- 
mon sense  of  the  people,  and  the  Scriptures,  which 
Luther,  from  the  Wartburg  Castle,  where  a  friend  had 
confined  him  to  save  his  Hfe,  was  going  to  give  Ger- 
many in  the  German  language.  Events  now  cro\^ded 
upon  each  other.  The  old  controversy  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury between  Pelagius  and  Augustine,  as  to  salvation 
by  works  or  l)y  faith,  had  burst  into  a  new  fiame,  and 


68        THE  people's  history  of  ppesbyterianism. 

was  penetrating  all  the  nations,  but  this  time  with  a 
different  result.  God  had  defended  the  glimmering 
spark  of  truth,  and  now  was  about  to  make  it  a  light  for 
the  world. 

We  caniK^t  pursue  the  tempting  theme  of  the  progress 
of  the  Reformation  in  Germany,  descrilnng  the  heroism 
and  faith  of  the  men  who  gathered  about  Luther  and  his 
coadjutor,  Melancthon.  These  things  belong  to  the  his- 
tory of  Lutheranism,  and  cannot  fairly  be  included 
under  the  title  of  this  book,  which  is  a  history  of  Pres- 
byterianism.  For  though  nearly  akin,  or  identical  in 
essentials,  the  Lutherans  differ  from  the  "Presb^-te- 
rian,"  or  "  Reformed  Church,"  in  many  important  points 
of  theology,  church  government  and  the  sacraments. 
Let  us  turn  to  Smtzerland,  the  land  of  azure  lakes  and 
snow-mantled  mountains,  the  home  of  liberty,  and  the 
mother  of  modern  Presbyterianism. 


I 


\        f 


'^)}^^^' 


7.  W  I  K  O  L  I. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

The  Eef(^rmati()n  in  Eastern  Switzerland. — Zwinglt. 

THE  Reforniatiou  did  not  originate  in  German}-,  nor 
was  it  carried  thence  to  the  other  nations,  though 
the  reformers  of  that  country  deserve  unbounded  praise 
for  their  services  rendered  to  the  cause  of  truth.  It  is 
impossible  to  decide  where  it  l)egan ;  it  can  hardly  be 
said  to  hiive  heg^in  anywhere.  It  appeared  simultan- 
eously o  er  a  large  part  of  western  Europe,  like  the 
coming  of  spring.  While  Luther  and  his  colleagues 
were  operating  in  Germany,  Ulrich  Zwingli  was  doing  a 
great  'vvcdi  in  Switzerland. 

The  fviagnificent  man  was  born  in  1484,  at  Wildhaus, 
a  smaiJ  village  of  the  Alps.  His  parents  Avere  honest, 
well-to-do  people,  who  brought  him  up  carefully.  His 
coiu'se  of  primary  education  was  taken  at  Basle  and 
Bern,  after  which  he  pursued  his  studies  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Vienna.  Returning  to  Basle,  he  taught  school 
and  studied  theology,  and  when  his  preparation  was 
complete,  he  was  ordained  priest,  and  labored  at  Glarus. 
For  ten  years  he  worked  earnestly  there  among  his 
parishioners,  in  his  studies  using  for  text  books,  among 
others,  Plutarch,  Plato,  the  Bible,  and  the  writings 
ef  Augustine,  Wickliffe,  and  Huss.  He  soon  became 
noted  for  his  learning  and  zeal,  all  of  which,  together 
Avith  his  engaging  manners,  made  him  very  popular. 
His  reputation  even  extended  to  Rome,  and  the  pope 
6  69 


70  THE  people's  history 

gave  him  a  yearly  pension  for  the  continuation  of  his 
studies.  His  outspoken  opposition  to  the  then  preva- 
lent custom  in  Switzerland  of  men  enlisting  as  mercen- 
aries in  the  armies  of  the  surrounding  nations,  embit- 
tered many  who  were  favorable  to  that  j)olicy,  and  they 
made  it  so  unpleasant  for  him  that  he  was  glad  to  w- 
move,  in  1516,  to  Einsiedeln,  where  he  accepted  the  of- 
hee  of  preacher.  This  town  was  a  place  to  which  thou- 
sands of  pilgrims  resorted,  not  only  from  Switzerland, 
hut  from  the  whole  of  southern  Germany.  "  Ifi<'  r.s7 
plena  rernimo  oriininrii  i^eccatorurii^''  fidl  forgrveneHS  of 
all  s-h)^-  c.(tn  he  had  here,  was  written  over  its  gates.  This 
the  honest  soul  of  Zwingli  could  not  tolerate,  and  he 
began  preaching  to  the  pilgrims  salvation  by  faith  in 
Christ  alone.  He  appealed  to  the  cardinal,  the  papal 
legate,  and  the  l)isliop,  to  suppress  the  sale  of  indul- 
gences. He  drove  the  indulgence-seller  out  of  the  can- 
ton by  his  l)old  denunciations.  To  keep  down  the  ris- 
ing storm  the  wdly  officials  of  Rome  had  him  made  a 
titular  chaplain  to  the  pope.  But  they  mistook  Zwingli. 
He  was  not  a  man  to  be  Ixmght.  The  same  year  lu' 
accepted  a  call,  as  preacher,  to  the  cath<Mlral  at  Zurich, 
where  he  proceeded  ])oldly  to  proclaim  tlie  trutli.  His 
audiences  were  immense.  Peasants,  scholars,  and  pei- 
sons  of  rank  thronged  the  church  from  the  city  and 
country.  He  had  now  become  too  powerful  and  too 
bold  to  l)e  tolerated,  and  it  was  determined  by  the  hier- 
archy to  put  him  down.  But  the  people^  were  ^^  ith  him, 
and  they  were  obliged  to  proceed  cautiously.  It  was 
finally  dett^rmined  t(^  hold  a  public  disputation  in  tlie 
city  hall  of  Zuricli,  betwecm  the  preacher  and  his  accu- 
sers, that  lie  miglit  be   overthrown  in  the  presence  of 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  71 

the  people.  This  was  on  Jauuary  29,  1523.  The  mul- 
titude gathered  for  the  del)ate,  and  the  vicar-general, 
Faber,  appeared,  representing  the  Bishop  of  Constance, 
to  crush  the  heretic.  Zwingli  had  prepared  sixty-five 
theses,  in  which  he  maintained  that  "  Christ  is  the  only 
means  of  reconciliation  Avitli  God;  the  only  way  of  sal- 
vation ;  while  the  whole  apparatus  gotten  up  by  the 
Church  of  Rome — priesthood,  confession,  absolution, 
indulgences,  etc. — is  a  vain  thing ;  and  that  the  Scrip- 
tures are  the  only  authoritative  guide  in  religion." 
These  propositions  he  defended  with  eloquence  and  mer- 
ciless logic.  But  one  original  feature  of  his  statement, 
and  that  in  which  it  differed  materially  from  the  Luth- 
eran theologians,  was,  in  his  laying  down  the  great  Pres- 
byterian principle  of  government,  which  was  as  funda- 
mentally opposed  to  the  ecclesiastical  polity  of  the 
Boman  Church  as  the  theology  of  the  reformers  was 
to  its  doctrinal  errors.  It  was,  that  the  power  of  gov- 
ernment resides  in  the  people,  and  that  they  have  the 
right  to  elect  their  own  rulers — a  proposition  which, 
once  admitted,  overthrows  the  whole  hierarchy,  from 
the  pope  to  the  liundDlest  parish  priest  aj)pointed  by 
his  bishop.  So  powerfully  did  Zwingli  defend  these 
principles,  that  the  vicar-general,  Faber,  dared  not  even 
to  answer  him ;  but  the  discussion  resulted  in  a  com- 
plete victory  for  the  reformer,  and  his  doctrines  Avere 
forthwith  formally  adopted  for  Zurich.  At  this  point 
the  pope  Avrote  him  an  artful  letter,  intimating  that 
everything  except  the  papal  chair  was  open  to  him.  It 
failed,  and  the  next  step  of  the  undaunted  preacher  of 
Zurich  was  to  close  all  the  female  convents,  sending 
the  nuns  back  to  their  homes,  and  all  this  by  the  town 


72  THE  people's  histoky 

jiutliorities,  witliout  coiisiiltiug"  any  l)isli()p.  In  the 
same  year  tlu^  chapter  of  the  cathedral  was  closed,  and 
converted  into  an  educational  establishment  for  theo- 
logical students.  His  heresy  culmhiated  the  next 
spring,  1524,  by  his  being  publicly  married  in  the  ca- 
thedral to  Anne  Eeinhard,  Avhich  example  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  many  of  his  brethren  of  the  priesthood. 

In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  he  published  two 
pamphlets,  in  which  he  developed  those  views  of  the 
Holy  Supper,  since  called  Zwinglian,  which  furnished 
the  main  ground  of  separation  between  the  Lutherans 
and  the  Eeformed,  or  Presbyterians,  ever  afterwards. 
It  was  simply  that  the  word  "As"  in  the  sacred  for- 
mula— "  this  ?.s' my  body  " — means  repvesenU,  and  that 
the  human  body  of  Christ  is  in  no  sense  present  in  the 
sacrament.  The  opposite  of  this  Avas  and  is  the  Lu- 
theran view,  that  the  text  is  to  be  understood  literally, 
and  that  the  flesh  and  blood  of  our  Lord  are  really 
present,  though  invisible.  For  this  Martin  Luther  con- 
tended with  vehemence,  by  pen  and  speech,  in  his  pul- 
pit and  at  conferences  held  with  the  Swiss  Reformers, 
Amting  down  on  his  table  with  chalk,  "  Hoc  est  vorjnis 
ineum,''  and  declaring  that  he  would  hold  fellowship 
with  none  who  refused  to  accept  it.  This  difference  of 
o|)inion  split  the  Reformation  in  twain,  and  excited 
feelings  of  the  greatest  bitterness  l)etween  those  holding 
opposing  opinions,  especially  on  the  part  of  the  Lu- 
therans towards  the  Reformed. 

It  was  another  matter,  however,  in  the  pamphlets  of 
Zwingli  which  attracted  the  greatest  attention  in  Zurich 
just  at  that  time.  It  was  a  strong  denial  of  the  admissi- 
bility of  images  in  the  worship  of  God.     To  quiet  down 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  73 

the  popular  mind,  another  disputation  was  had  between 
the  opposing  parties,  at  which  about  nine  hundred 
were  present,  which  resulted  in  the  declaration  being 
adopted,  that  the  worship  of  Qod  by  images  is  forbid- 
den in  Scripture,  and  that  the  mass  is  not  a  sacrifice, 
but  a  simple  memorial  ordinance.  How  far  Zurich 
had  drifted  from  Romanism  is  well  attested  by  this 
scene :  a  company  of  believers  pronouncing  upon  a 
question  of  doctrine  and  worship,  and  forming  their 
judgment  solely  by  the  Word  of  God.  Shortly  after- 
wards the  images  all  disappeared  from  the  churches, 
accompanied  by  the  relics  of  the  saints,  and  at  Easter, 
1525,  the  Lord's  Supper  was  celebrated  after  the  Re- 
formed manner,  with  a  table  instead  of  an  altar,  and 
the  laity  partaking  of  both  the  bread  and  wine.  An 
attempt  was  now  made  to  destroy  the  Reformation  in 
Zurich,  by  securing  a  demand  from  the  Catholic  cantons 
of  the  Swiss  Union,  that  the  Zurichers  return  to  the 
ancient  faith,  or  be  expelled  from  the  confederation. 
The  response  was  that  they  would  In-ook  no  interference 
in  spiritual  matters.  The  religious  reyolution  now 
made  rapid  progress  in  Smtzerland.  A  conference  was 
held  at  Bern,  in  1528,  at  which  Zwingli  was  present, 
which  resulted  in  the  addition  of  that  city  to  the  Refor- 
mation, which  example  was  soon  afterwards  followed  by 
Basle,  St.  Gall  and  Schaffhausen.  Thus,  without  the 
shedding  of  a  drop  of  blood,  the  great  cause  made  gigan- 
tic strides  in  Switzerland.  But  it  could  not,  in  the  nature 
of  things,  continue  thus.  A  combination  of  Roman  Cath- 
olic cantons  was  formed  against  Zurich.  By  a  mistaken 
policy  of  retaliatorj'  prohibition  against  them  on  the 
part    of   the    Protestants,    in    spite   of   the   protest   of 


74  THE  people's  history 

Zwingli,  a  conflict  was  precipitated,  which  cuhiiiuated 
in  a  desperate  battle  at  Cappel,  resulting  in  the  utter 
defeat  of  the  Zurichers.  Among  the  dead  that  lay  on 
the  battle-field  was  Ulricli  Zwingli,  who  A\'as  present  in 
his  capacit}'  as  chaplain.  He  was  bending  over  a  dying 
man  to  comfort  him,  when  he  was  pierced  Avith  a  spear. 
His  last  words  were,  "they  can  kill  the  body,  but  not 
the  soul."  The  next  day  a  public  executioner  quartered 
his  poor  body ;  it  was  then  ignominiously  burned,  and 
his  ashes  scattered  to  the  winds  l)y  the  fanatics  who 
had  destroyed  his  nol)le  life. 

^  Over  the  spot  where  he  fell  the  admiring  peasantry 
have  kept  a  pear  tree  growing  fi'om  age  to  age,  up  to  the 
present,  as  a  poor  tribute  to  his  memory ;  and  this  lin- 
ing symbol  is  quite  as  fitting  as  the  metal  plate  bearing 
an  elaborate  inscription  on  a  stone  hard  by.  Zwingli's 
life  thus  sadly  closed  in  1531,  at  the  age  of  forty-seven, 
but  his  fame  lives,  and  wherever  the  Reformation  is 
preached,  or  the  praises  of  true  nobility  are  sung,  will 
his  name  rank  high  in  the  catalogue  of  the  world's 
heroes. 

' '  Goodness  and  gi-eatness  are  not  means,  but  ends. 
Hatli  he  not  always  treasures,  always  friends. 
The  good  great  man  ?     Three  treasures,  —love,  and  light, 
And  calm  thoughts,  equable  as  infant's  breath ; 
And  three  fast  friends  more  sure  than  day  or  night — 
Himself,  his  Maker,  and  the  angel  death  ?" 

—  CoUrklge. 

After  a  few  warlike  demonstrations,  a  peace  was  con- 
cluded, in  which  it  was  agreed  that  the  Eeformationj 
should  be  guaranteed  in  Zurich  and  its  immediate  de- 
pendencies, as  well  as  in  all  other  places  where  it  had 
been  already  received ;  that  all  should  have  full  liberty 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  75 

of  conscience,  but  that  no  fuither  organized  effort  should 
be  made  to  extend  the  new  doctrines  in  the  Konian 
Catholic  cantons.  Thus  was  the  progress  of  the  Ke- 
formation  arrested  suddenly  in  the  eastern  or  German 
portions  of  Switzerland,  and  one-third  of  it  remains  in 
the  power  of  the  Church  of  Rome  to  this  dux.  But 
great  things  were  al)out  to  be  done  in  the  western  or 
French  cantons,  where  a  mighty  leader  was  rising, 
another  disciple  of  Paul  and  Augustine,  one  who  was 
to  accomplish  more  for  his  race  than  was  ever  assigned 
to  the  agency  of  any  other  uninspired  teacher — that 
man  was  John  Calvin. 


CHAPTEE  X. 

The  Spiritual  Eepublic  Established. 
John  Calvin  and  Geneva. 

THE  circulation  in  Geneva  of  a  Frencli  translation  of 
the  Scriptures  hy  LeFe\Te  d'Etaples,  of  France,  was 
the  preparation  for  the  Keformation  in  that  city.  "  The 
entrance  of  thj  words  givetli  light,"  is  a  truth  of  uni- 
versal application,  and,  as  had  been  the  case  in  Bohe- 
mia a  hundred  years  earlier,  and  in  Germany  just  he- 
fore  the  time  of  which  we  are  ^^iting,  so  now  in  Geneva 
the  Keformation  came  out  of  the  study  of  the  Bible. 
The  Roman  C^atholic  authorities  were  alive  to  the  dan- 
ger of  allowing  the  people  to  read  it  for  themselves,  and 
so,  as  far  l)ack  as  1528,  we  lind  the  bishop,  the  Duke 
of  Savoy,  and  the  Pope  busily  engaged  lining  scourg- 
ing, and  beheading  those  who  possessed  or  read  ^' le 
Ihrre  "inaudit,''  the  cursed  hool'. 

When  Farel,  a  Frenchman  of  piety,  courage,  and  elo- 
cpience,  who  had  been  driven,  first  from  his  OAvn  coun- 
trv,  and  afterwards  from  Basle,  because  of  his  advanc^ed 
ideas  in  religion,  came  to  Geneva,  he  found  the  soil 
ready  for  his  work.  It  was  just  after  a  visit  to  the  AVal- 
denses  that  he  entered  Geneva,  in  1532,  and  established 
the  Reformation  there.  In  one  year  he  had  so  far 
succeeded  in  his  lal)ors  as  to  have  the  Reformed  religion 
formally  recognized  in  the  city,  and  liberty  to  preach  it 
openly.  There  was  afterwards  a  short  reaction,  l:»ut  in 
76 


THE  TEOrLE's  HISTORY  OF  PHESBYTERIANISM.  77 

1535  it  was  culopted  as  the  religion  of  the  state.  It 
was  during  the  year  foHowiug  that  (^ilviii  appeared  in 
Geneva,  and  soon  became  the  leading  figure  in  its  civil 
and  religious  affairs. 

This  wonderful  man,  whose  name  has  been  given  to 
the  Pauline  or  Augustinian  theology,  which  has  played 
such  an  important  part  in  the  great  struggles  for  civil 
and  religious  liljerty  of  modern  times,  ^\'as  l)orn  in 
France,  at  Noyon,  July  10,  1501).  His  father,  Gerard 
Calvin,  was  a  good  man,  and  secretary  to  the  bishop  of 
his  native  city.  As  is  often  the  case  with  remarkable 
men,  John  Calvin  had  a  remarkable  mother.  Like 
Monica,  the  mother  of  Augustine,  Jeanne  Lefranc  Cal- 
vin was  a  woman  of  great  piety,  as  well  as  discretion, 
and  was  also  noted  for  her  personal  beauty.  He  was 
early  destined  for  the  priesthood,  and,  that  he  might 
have  the  means  to  secure  an  education,  his  parents  be- 
ing poor,  at  the  age  of  tAvelve  he  was  given  a  chaplaincy. 
This  position,  and  several  others  like  it  which  he  held, 
enabled  him  to  secure  a  line  training  in  provincial 
schools,  and  in  Paris,  for  the  work  before  him.  He  be- 
came distinguished  in  all  his  classes ;  but  at  length,  be- 
fore he  had  been  consecrated  a  priest,  he  abandoned 
his  original  intention,  and,  on  the  advice  of  his  father, 
addressed  himself  to  the  study  of  law.  In  this  depaiii- 
ment  his  success  was  brilliant,  and  he  often  took  the 
places  of  his  professors  in  their  absence,  while  he  was 
a  student,  to  lectiu'e  before  the  classes.  After  the  death 
of  his  father,  he  returned  to  the  study  of  theology,  his 
time  spent  in  the  law  having  been  by  no  means  wasted, 
as  his  future  history  showed.  His  main  study  now  be- 
came the  Bible,  and  he  began  preaching  the  evangelical 


78  THE  rEOrLE'8  HISTORY 

doctrines  in  Paris.     This  led  to  liis  expulsion,  and  for 
two  years  he  wandered  a  fugitive,  hut  everywhere  sow- 
ing the  seed  of  the  Avord.     Near  Poitiers,  in  eonipany 
with  a  few  friends,  he  first  celel^rated  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, in  a  cave,  Avhieh  is  called  "Calvin's  Cave"  to  this 
day.     In  1530,  at  the  age  of  tAventy-seven,  he  published, 
at  Basle,  in  the  Latin  language,   his  immortal  Avcu'k, 
"The  Listitutes  of  Christian  Theology."     In  the  same 
year,  on  his  AvaA'  back  to  Basle  from  a  A'isit  to  his  native 
Noyon,  Avhere  he  had  converted  a  brother  and  sister  to 
the  Eeformed  faith,  he  made  Avliat  he  intended  to  be  a 
short  stop  of  one  day  in  Geneva,  being  obliged  to  go 
that  Avay  by  reason  of  AAars  along  the  direct  route.    His 
design  Avas  to  settle  doAvn  quietly,  in  Basle  or  Strasburg, 
to  a  life  of  study.     But  Farel  laid  hands  on  him,  l)e- 
seeching  and  commanding  him  to  remain  in  Geneva, 
and  take  part  in  the  great  Avork  going  forward  there. 
When  he  insisted  upon  continuing  his  journey,  Farel 
"threatened  him  Avith  the  curse  of  God,  if  he  preferred 
his  studies  to  the  Avork  of  the  Lord."     "These  Avords," 
says  .Calvin,  in  the  ])reface  of  his  commentary  on  the 
Psalms,  "terrilied  and  shook  me  as  if  God  from  on  high 
had  stretched  ou^-his  hand  to  stop  me;  so  that  I  re- 
nounced^yie  journey  I  had  undertaken."     The  scholar 
^\  as  noAN-^f)  l)ecome  the  preacher  and  the  man  of  books, 
the  leader  of  a  mighty  Eefonnation,  extending  to  many 
lands.     He  and  Farel  lal)ored  to  establish  the  Eeforma- 
tion  in  Geneva;  but  the  severity  of  their  morals  and 
discipline  g?uned  for  them  the  ill-Avill  of  the  leadhig 
politicians,  and  in  tAvo  years  they  Avere  both  formally 
expelled  from  the  city. 

Calvin  then  Avent  to  Strasburg,  to  i)ursue  his  studies 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  79 

until  God  should  again  call  him  to  active  duty.  AVhile 
there  he  ministered  to  the  French  Church,  and  in  1540 
was  married  to  Idelette  de  Bures.  By  her  he  had  thre<' 
children,  all  of  whom  died  in  infancy.  Calvin's  married 
life,  except  for  these  ])ereavements,  was  a  very  happy 
one,  Init  it  only  lasted  nine  years.  She,  whom  he  called 
"the  excellent  companion  of  his  life,"  and  "a  precious 
help,"  died  in  1549,  to  the  great  grief  of  her  husband, 
who  never  ceased  to  mourn  his  loss. 

Matters  did  not  flow  smoothly  in  Geneva  during  the 
al)sence  of  Calvin.  A  vigorous  eftbrt  was  made  to  win 
the  city  l)ack  to  Rome,  and,  from  a  distance,  Calvin  re- 
plied to  an  address  of  Cardinal  Sadolet  in  a  published 
letter,  and  silenced  the  prelate.  At  length,  however, 
he  was  urgently  and  repeatedly  called  to  return  to 
Geneva.  In  this  invitation  the  magistrates  joined,  and 
in  1541,  Calvin  again  made  his  home  among  the  Gene- 
vese.  He  Avas  given  hj  the  council  of  the  city  a  house 
to  live  in,  and  in  addition,  a  salary  of  live  hundred 
florins,  twelve  measures  of  wheat,  and  two  tubs  of  wine. 
He  was  received  with  the  greatest  enthusiasm,  and  set 
about  his  work  with  a  firm  resolution  t(^  carry  out  his 
idea  of  a  Bible  church,  in  its  doctrines,  polity,  and  dis- 
cipline. He  at  once  became  the  dominant  mind  of  the 
citv,  and  soon  (^f  tlie  greater  number  (^f  the  Reformed 
churches  through(uit  Eurc>pe.  His  intellectual  energy- 
was  prodigious,  and  his  labors  immense.  He  preached 
every  day  in  each  alternate  week,  taught  th(M)logy  tlireM' 
days  in  the  week,  attended  weekly  meetings  of  his  con- 
sistory (session),  read  the  Scriptures  once  a  week  in  tlic 
congregation,  and  carried  on  a  heavy  (MUTt^spondencc^ 
with  Reformers  in  many  countries,  to  help  them  in  their 


(SO  THE  people's  HISTOPY 

struggles  for  tlie  trutli.  At  the  same  time  lie  prepared 
a  revision  of  tli(^  Waldeiisiau  Freiicli  Bible,  aiicl  wrote 
commentaries  on  the  Scriptures.  "I  have  not  time," 
he  writes  to  a  friend,  "to  look  out  of  my  house  at  the 
blessed  sun,  and  if  things  continue  thus  I  shall  forget 
what  sort  of  appearance  it  has.  When  I  have  settled 
my  usual  Imsiness  I  have  so  many  letters  to  write,  so 
many  questions  to  answer,  that  many  a  night  is  spent 
without  any  offering  of  sleep  being  Ijrought  to  nature." 
Geneva  soon  became  "the  Protestant  Rome  ; "  for,  under 
the  influence  of  Calvin's  piety  and  genius,  not  only  did 
the  city  become  purified,  reorganized,  and  thrilled  with 
new  life,  but  the  influence  was  felt  wherever  the  Iiefor- 
niation  had  been  carried.  Letters  went  out  in  all  di- 
rections, containing  advice  to  the  Reformed  churches, 
and  hundreds  of  men  came  to  Geneva  to  sit  under  the 
teachings  of  this  wonderful  man.  There  was  little  at- 
tempt at  the  exercise  of  (tutliority  over  other  communi- 
ties;  from  "the  Protestant  Rome"  the  influence  that 
went  forth  was  that  of  the  great  truths  of  the  Scriptures, 
elaborated  by  a  giant  intellect  under  the  baptism  of 
"the  Holy  Ghost  and  fire."  Among  others,  Calvin  had 
for  a  pupil  John  Knox,  who  had  taken  refuge  from  per- 
secution in  Geneva,  and  who  afterwards  became  the 
organizer  of  the  Presl)yterian  Church  of  Scotland. 

"The  Lutheran  Reformation,"  says  Dyer  in  his  ///-s- 
fory  of  Modern  Europe,  "traveled  but  little  out  of  Ger- 
many and  the  neighboring  Scandinavian  kingdcuns ; 
while  (^dvinism  obtained  a  European  character,  and 
was  accepted  in  all  the  countries  that  adopted  a  reforma- 
tion from  without,  as  France,  the  Netherlands,  Scot- 
land, even  England  ;  for  the  early  English  Reformation 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM  81 

under  Edward  YI.  was  Calviuistic,  and  Calvin  was  in- 
contestable' the  father  of  our  Puritans  and  dissenters. 
Thus,  under  his  rule,  Geneva  may  be  said  to  have  be- 
come the  capital  of  European  Reform." 

Francis  de  Sales,  an  intense  Roman  Catholic,  urging 
upon  the  Duke  of  Savoy  the  importance  of  suppressing 
the  Reformation  in  Geneva,  said:  "All  the  heretics  re- 
spect Geneva  as  the  asylum   of  their  religion 

There  is  not  a  city  in  Europe  which  offers  more  facili- 
ties for  the  encouragement  of  heresy,  for  it  is  the  gate 
of  France,  of  Italy  and  German}^,  so  that  one  finds 
there  people  of  all  nations^ — ^Italians,  French,  Germans, 
Poles,  Spaniards,  English,  and  of  countries  still  more 
remote.  Besides,  every  one  knows  the  great  number  of 
ministers  bred  there.  Last  year  it  furnished  twenty  to 
France.  Even  England  obtains  ministers  from  Geneva. 
What  shall  I  say  of  its  magnificent  printing  establish- 
ments, by  means  of  which  the  city  floods  the  world  with 
its  wicked  books,  and  even  goes  the  length  of  distribut- 
ing them  at  the  public  expense?  .  .  .  All  the  enter- 
prises undertaken  against  the  Holy  See  and  the  Cath- 
olic princes  have  their  beginnings  at  Geneva.  No  city 
in  Europe  receives  more  apostates  of  all  grades,  secular 
and  regular.  From  thence  I  conclude  that  Geneva  be- 
ing destroyed  would  naturally  lead  to  the  dissipation  of 
heresy."  ^ 

Bancroft  also  writes:  "More  truly  benevolent  to  tlie 
human  race  than  Solon,  more  self-denying  than  Lycur- 
gus,  the  genius  of  Calvin  infused  enduring  elements  into 
the  institutions  of  Geneva,  and  made  it  for  the  modern 
world    the    impregnable    foi-tress  of  popular    liberty." 

'  Vie  de  Ste.  Francois  de  Sales,  par  son  neotu,  p.  120. 
7 


82  THE  people's  HIS'J'OliV 

Kcinke  said,  "  Jolm  Cjilviii  ^vas  virtually  the  fouiicler  of 
America." 

Enfiis  Clioate  writes:  "In  the  reign  of  Mary  |of 
England]  a  thousand  learned  artisans  Hed  from  the 
stake  at  home  to  the  hajipier  states  of  continental  Pro- 
testantism. Of  these,  great  numbers — I  know  not  how 
many — came  to  Geneva.  ...  I  ascribe  to  that  five 
years  in  Geneva  an  influence  which  has  changed  the 
history  of  the  world.  I  seem  to  myself  to  trace  to  it, 
as  an  influence  on  the  English  character,  a  new  theology, 
new  politics,  another  tone  of  character,  the  opening  of 
another  era  of  time  and  liberty.  I  seem  to  myself  to 
trace  to  it  the  great  civil  war  in  England,  the  republican 
constitution  framed  in  the  cabin  of  the  Mayflower,  the 
divinity  [theology]  of  Jonathan  Edwards,  the  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill,  the  independence  of  America." 

During  Calvin's  ascendency  in  Geneva,  a  heretic, 
named  Servetus,  a  man  who  denied  the  divinity  of  our 
Lord,  and  held  other  errors,  was  burned  by  order  of  the 
council.  A  great  deal  more  has  been  made  of  this  mel- 
ancholy occurrence  by  the  enemies  of  Calvin,  to  injiuc 
his  reputation,  than  the  facts  of  the  case  warrant.  Un- 
der the  prosecution  by  Calvin  he  was  convicted  of  this 
heresy,  and  the  great  Eeformer  did  not  interfere  to  pre- 
vent his  execution,  though  he  earnestly  entreated  that 
his  death  might  be  by  the  sword,  rather  than  by  what 
he  called  "  ihe  atrocity''  of  burning  at  the  stake.  There 
is  this  also  to  be  said  in  extenuation :  Calvin  was  a  man 
of  his  time,  had  lieen  brought  up  to  regard  the  punish- 
ment of  fundamental  heresy  by  death  as  right  and 
proper,  and  this  particular  case  was  approved  by  nearly 
the  unanimous  consent  of  the  Protestants  of  that  day. 


OF  ITtESBYTERIANISM.  83 

Even  such  a  gentle  spirit  as  Melanctlion  affirmed  the 
justice  of  the  sentence  ;  and  a  prominent  EngHsh  divine 
wrote,  in  the  next  century,  that  the  process  against  Ser- 
vetus  was  "just  and  honoral)le."  In  the  words  of  an 
eminent  British  authority,  by  no  means  partial  to  the 
Reformer,  "the  general  voice  of  Christendom,  Roman 
Catholic  and  Protestant,  was  in  favor  of  it, "  and  Cole- 
ridge declared  that  "the  death  of  Servetus  was  not 
Calvin's  guilt  especially,  but  the  common  opprobrium 
of  all  European  Christendom."  It  is,  perhaps,  hardly 
necessary  to  add  that  while  this  one  sad  case  does  throw 
a  shadow  on  the  Reformation  of  that  day,  there  were 
thousands  and  tens  of  thousands  who  died  for  their 
opinions  at  the  hands  of  Rome. 

Though  Switzerland  was  a  republic,  and  therefore  a 
favorable  held  for  Presbyterianism,  Calvin  could  not 
work  his  principles  of  doctrine  and  government  into  the 
institutions  of  the  people  of  Geneva  without  a  long  and 
bitter  struggle.  The  great  theological  system  called 
Pauline,  or  Augustinian,  w^as  heareafter  to  be  named 
Calvinism.  C^dvin  established  it  as  the  theology  of  the 
Reformed  and  Presl)yterian  churches  throughout  the 
world.  No  such  logical  and  powerful  statement  of  doc- 
trine had  been  made  since  the  days  of  the  apostles,  and 
the  promulgation  of  it  resounded  throughout  Christen- 
dom. Its  tAvo  capital  points  were  Divine  Sovereignty 
and  Human  Depravity.  These  are  the  poles  of  the 
iCalvinistic  theology,  and  the  line  that  connects  them  is 
^the  axis  around  which  the  whole  system  revolves. 

Calvinism  has  been  called  hard,  and  it  was  hard,  but 
it  was  true.  Not  everything  in  philosophy  or  theology 
can  be  sweetness  and  light.     There  must  be  granite  in 


84  THE  teoi'Le's  history 

the  Avoi'ld  as  well  as  flowers ;  so  there  is  need  for  solid 
substance  in  the  beliefs  which  make  the  fianiework 
of  human  character,  as  well  as  for  the  gentle  graces  of 
sympathy  and  love.  It  is  such  doctrines  as  compose 
Calvinism  that  make  reformers.  It  show^s  man  the 
majesty  of  a  Sovereign  God,  ruling  all  things,  and  in  the 
presence  of  this  sublime  vision  he  loses  the  fear  of  mor- 
tals. Confronted  with  the  infinite  and  the  eternal  he 
calmly  ignores  councils,  kings,  and  popes.  To  this  the 
world  owes  most  of  its  martyrs. 

But  Calvin  did  not  make  Calvinism,  he  only  stated 
it.  Calvinism  is  eternal  truth  itself.  Its  doctrines  are 
the  laws  of  nature,  the  laws  of  mind,  the  universal  order, 
ordained  by  the  Infinite,  Avliich  man  cannot  change, 
which  operate  in  heaven  and  earth,  l)y  the  unfolding  of 
an  eternal  decree,  not  blind,  but  animated  with  the  in- 
teUigence  of  the  living. God. 

What  was  the  effect  of  this  theology  upon  those  who 
accepted  it?  "There  is  no  system,"  said  Henry  "Ward 
Beecher,  a  judge  by  no  means  prejudicial  in  its  favor, 
"  which  equals  Calvinism  in  intensifying,  to  the  last  de- 
gree, ideas  of  moral  excellence  and  purity  of  character. 
There  never  was  a  system,  since  the  world  stood,  which 
put  upon  man  such  motives  to  holiness,  or  which  builds 
batteries  which  sweep  the  whole  ground  of  sin  with  such 
horrible  artillery."  " They  tell  us,"  he  continues,  "that 
Calvinism  phes  men  with  hammer  and  chisel.  It  does  ; 
and  the  result  is  monumental  marble.  Other  systems 
leave  men  soft  and  dirty;  Calvinism  makes  them  of 
white  marble,  to  endure  forever." 

Calvin  also  worked  out,  more  fuUy  than  had  ever  been 
done  before,  the  principles  of  Presbyterian  church  gOA- 


OF  PEESBYTERIANISM.  85 

ernmeiit,  constructing  a  splendid  ecclesiastical  republic, 
which  became  a  model  for  the  world.  Its  influence 
was  felt  in  Holland,  France,  and  Great  Britain,  and 
has  since  become  a  potent  factor  in  the  development  of 
the  civil  and  religious  republics  of  the  western  hemis- 
phere. Perhaps  no  community  was  ever  more  thor- 
oughly permeated  by  the  soul  of  one  man ;  and  even 
now,  after  three  hundred  years,  the  simplicity  and  se- 
verity of  the  morals  and  manners  of  its  inhabitants  show 
Geneva  to  be  still  the  city  of  John  Calvin. 

His  courage,  perseverance,  and  genius  were  triumph- 
antly successful,  and  he  had  the  satisfaction  before  he 
died  of  seeing  his  system  of  doctrine  and  polity  firmly 
established,  not  only  at  Geneva,  but  in  other  parts  of 
Switzerland,  as  well  as  in  France  and  Scotland.  His 
influence  in  his  adopted  city  extended  to  every  depart- 
ment. All  questions  of  law,  police,  commerce,  and 
manufacturing,  were  referred  to  the  great  theologian. 
He  established  several  enterprises  which  brought  wealth 
to  the  city;  and  the  university  founded  by  him  has 
flourished  down  to  the  present  time,  an  ornament  to 
Geneva  and  a  means  of  good  to  many  nations. 

The  labors  which  Calvin  performed  could  not  fail  to 
tell  upon  his  body.  Through  sickness,  weakness,  and 
pain  he  fought  his  way  for  twenty-eight  years  ;  nor  was 
it  until  undermined  by  several  acute  diseases,  his  mortal 
tenement  crumbling  to  pieces,  that  the  heroic  soul  de- 
serted the  ruin  and  took  its  everlasting  flight.  After  he 
became  too  feeble  to  preach,  he  was  often  carried  to 
the  church  which  is  still  associated  with  his  name,  the 
church  in  which  he  had  so  long  and  powerfully  pro- 
claimed the  glorious  gospel.     He  refused  to  receive  a 


80  THE  PEOrLE's  HISTORY  OF  PTiESBYTERIAXISM. 

salary  after  lie  became  iiiial)le  to  perform  liis  public 
duties,  though  he  continued  to  labor  in  private.  When 
uri^ed  to  i^ive  his  Ijody  rest,  he  exclaimed,  "Would  you 
that  the  Lc^rd  should  find  me  idle  when  he  comes?" 
A  short  time  before  his  decease  he  gathered  the  coun- 
cillors of  Geneva  around  his  bed  and  delivered  to  them 
a  pai*ting  charge. 

On  the  evening  of  the  27tli  of  May,  1564,  in  the  fifty- 
fifth  year  of  his  age,  he  quietly  passed  away,  leaning 
upon  the  liosom  of  a  faithful  friend,  Theodore  Beza,  who 
had  long  been  his  companion  in  labors.  This  friend 
afterwards  wrote  :  "I  have  lieen  a  witness  of  him  for  six- 
teen years,  and  I  think  I  am  fully  entitled  to  say,  that  in 
this  man  there  was  exhil)ited  to  all  an  example  of  the 
life  and  death  of  the  christian,  such  as  it  will  not  he  easy 
to  depreciate,  and  such  as  it  will  be  difficult  to  emulate." 

The  thoughtful  visitor  pauses  now,  in  a  little  ceme- 
tery at  the  outskirts  of  Geneva,  beside  the  only  monu- 
ment erected  to  his  memory  in  the  city  where  he  lived, 
a  piece  of  marble  over  his  grave,  with  nothing  inscribed 
upon  it  but  two  letters,  "I.  C,"  and  reflects  that  he 
needed  no  shaft  of  l)ronze  or  granite  to  make  the  Avorld 
remember  its  greatest  uninspired  theologian. 

In  the  grand  old  cathedral  of  St.  Peter,  the  churcli 
of  John  Calvin  in  Geneva,  may  now  be  seen,  on  a  marble 
tablet  near  the  door,  an  inscription  in  French,  of  which 
the  following  is  a  translation: 

"In  August,  1885,  the  Genevese  Protestants  cele- 
l)rated  the  three  hundred  and  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the 
Reformation,  wishing  thus  to  afiirni  publicly  their  devo- 
ti(ui  to  the  reformed  religion,  and  their  profound  grati- 
tude to  their  valiant  ancestors.  May  God  protect 
always  the  church  of  Geneva!" 


CHAPTER  XI. 

The  Mighty  Conflict  in  Franct.. 

PRESBYTEEIANISM,  or  christian  repnl)licaiiisin, 
made  a  eoinparatiyely  easy  conquest  in  republican 
Switzerland.  People  accustomed  to  think  for  them- 
selves and  to  self-government  would  be  most  ready  to 
embrace  in  religion  principles  similar  to  those  by  which 
they  regulated  their  civil  affairs.  They  Avould  also  be 
more  indepench^nt  and  courageous  in  accepting  neAv 
views;  nor  would  they  be  trammelled  l)v  despotic 
rulers  in  folh^wing  the  dictates  of  their  consciences, 
under  the  illuminating  power  of  God's  word.  There- 
fore, one  need  not  l)e  surprised  to  hnd  the  Reforma- 
tion fully  estal)lislied  in  Geneva,  while  in  France  it  was 
still  struggling?  for  existence,  though  it  was  from  France 
principal!}^  the  influences  flrst  came  which  started  the 
moral  revolution  in  the  city  by  the  Lake  of  Leman. 
In  France  the  Reformation  had  not  only  to  contend 
with  the  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy,  but  a  system  of 
despotism  in  the  civil  government  of  the  country.  It 
began  in  blood  and  persecution,  and  this  has  been  its 
history,  in  the  main,  down  to  comparatively  recent 
times.  It  has  never  been  suppressed,  and  at  one 
period  it  was  the  grandest  Protestant  church  in  Europe, 
and  of  magnilicent  proportions.  The  great  work  may 
be  said  to  have  formally  begun  at  TNIaux  and  Paris  in 
1521,  though  there  had  been  a  considerable,  l)ut  unor- 
ganized manifestation  of  renewed  spiritual  life  among 
87 


88  THE  people's  history 

the  people  before  that  date.  In  1520,  Margaret,  sister 
of  Francis  I.,  was  a  zealons  Protestant.  It  was  charac- 
teristic of  the  French  Reformation  that  many  persons 
of  high  rank  and  position  espoused  its  interests.  The 
pubhcation  of  the  New  Testament  by  Le  Fevre  d'Etaples, 
in  1522,  and  afterwards  of  Calvin's  "Institutes  of  Chris- 
tian Theology,"  contri])uted  greatly  to  the  progress  (^f 
the  moyement.  Olivetan's  translation  of  the  whole 
Bible  supplied  a  great  demand,  and  increased  the  de- 
mand it  supplied.  The  study  of  the  Scriptures  is  the 
main-spring  of  all  true  reformation. 

Christian  psalmody  was  a  potent  factor  among  the 
French  in  those  stirring  times.  The  praising  of  God 
by  the  people  in  sacred  song  was  almost  unknown  in 
the  R(Mnan  Church.  This,  like  eyervthing  else,  was 
taken  from  them  and  performed  by  the  priests  or  their 
assistants.  It  had  been  artistically  execiited,  and,  no 
doubt,  feelings  deeply  religious,  as  well  as  aesthetic , 
were  stirred  l)y  it;  but  it  was  yet  to  be  shown  what 
was  in  the  power  of  psalmody  to  do  with  the  people, 
when  they  were  afforded  the  opportunity  t(^  join  in 
holy  hymns  of  praise  to  (rod.  This  was  one  feature  of 
that  mighty  moyement  which  was  by  the  people  and 
for  the  people.  How  the  Reformation  was  helped  on 
by  the  hymns  of  Luther  and  others  in  Germany,  and 
now  in  France,  by  a  popular  poet,  Clement  Marot, 
turning  the  Psalms  of  David  into  verse  and  putting 
them  into  the  mouths  of  the  })eople,  clothed  in  mel- 
odious music!  It  was  attended  with  great  success. 
Before,  the  only  singing  by  the  people  had  l^een  in  sin 
or  superstition,  l)ut  now  this  splendid  art  was  redeemed 
and  consecrated  to  the  highest  pui-poses.     It  came  in- 


OF  TRESBYTERIANISM.  89 

to  use  in  families,  in  cliiirclies,  and,  even  in  the  public 
high  way  or  the  field  of  battle,  the  songs  of  Zion  were 
heard  resounding.  The  same  thing  has  since  l)een 
r>trikinglY  ol)served  in  Scotland,  and  also  in  the  great 
Wesleyan  revival  in  England.  One  indication  of  tlit^ 
])resence  of  spiritual  life  is  the  earnestness  Avith  whicli 
the  people  sing. 

This  psahiT-singing,  scripture-reading  Reformation 
made  rapid  progress,  so  rapid  as  to  excite  the  alarm  of 
the  priesthood,  and  bring  on  persecution,  the  favorite 
instrument  of  the  dominant  church  to  -subdue  heresy. 
The  gospel  was  being  preached  in  fields,  houses,  ships, 
caves,  vaults,  and  wherever  their  ministers  could  find  a 
place  to  speak,  or  the  people  a  place  to  listen.  The 
congregations  were  large  and  increasing ;  the  popish 
churches  were  being  deserted,  and  something  needed 
to  be  done  to  stop  the  tide  Avhicli  was  setting  aAvay 
from  Rome. 

In  1559,  the  first  General  Hvnod  (Assembly)  was  held 
in  Paris,  just  one  year  before  the  first  General  Asseni- 
l)ly  in  Scotland  was  convened  in  Edinburgh.  The 
first  moderator  was  Francis  Morel.  The  Protestants 
had  already  passed  through  fiery  trials.  Before  the 
time  of  the  church's  formal  organization  in  this  General 
Synod,  over  one  hundred  had  given  up  their  lives  for 
the  truth ;  and  on  one  occasion  the  king  himself  took 
part  in  a  ])ublic  burning  of  Protestants  in  the  streets 
of  Paris.  But  the  work  of  reformation  was  not  stayed 
by  opposition ;  it  rather  contributed  to  its  intensity, 
and  a  cardinal  wrote  the  Pope  that  France  was  half 
"Huguenot,"  as  the  Protestants  were  called.  In  Paris 
alone  they  numbered  forty  thousand  adherents. 


1)0  THE  TEOrLE's  HISTOEY 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  there  was  no  siiigh^  name 
among  the  Reformers  of  France  which  stood  above  all 
the  rest,  like  Calvin's  in  Geneva,  Zwingli's  in  Zurich, 
Luther's  in  Germany,  or  Knox's  in  Scotland.  There 
wert^  many  noble  and  eminent  men,  but  there  was  no 
towering  genius.  A  characteristic  feature  of  the  Refor- 
mation in  this  nation  was  the  frequent  appeal  to  arms 
on  the  part  of  its  advocates.  It  is  a  sei'ious  epiestion 
whether  this  was  not  a  reason  for  the  terrible  calamities 
which  came  upon  them,  or  whether  their  history  he  not 
an  illustration  of  the  truth  that  "  all  they  which  take  the 
sword  shall  perish  by  the  sword ;"  but  their  provoca- 
tion was  extreme.  It  was  hard  for  the  Protestants  to 
refrain  from  passing  from  the  defensive  to  the  otiensive 
with  those  who  Avere  hunting  them  to  the  death.  The 
Prince  of  Conde  and  Admiral  Coligny,  two  laymen, 
were  among  the  most  prominent  leaders  of  the  Protes- 
tants. Both  chivalrous  and  heroic  men,  they  strove, 
by  arms,  to  Ining  about  the  great  reform.  Of  course 
they  were  unsuccessful.  The  kingdom  of  Christ  has 
never  been  established  by  military  ])()wer.  Condc  was 
miseral)ly  assassinated  after  a  battle,  and  CV^ligny  met  a 
similar  fate  in  the  memorable  massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew, on  the  24th  of  August,  1572.  At  one  time,  at  a 
signal  from  the  bell  of  Notre  Dame  Cathedral,  seventy- 
tive  thousand  Protestants,  men,  women  and  children, 
were  butcliered  in  cold  blood  in  their  homes  and  in  the 
streets  of  Paris  and  other  cities.  The  person  most  re- 
sponsilile  for  this  colossal  infamy  was  an  Italian  woman, 
Catherine  de  Medici,  queen  regent,  and  mother  of  the 
])oy  king,  Charles  IX.  She  deliberately  decoyed  the 
Protestants  to  Paris  for  this  purpose,  and  turned  loose 


OF  I'ltESBYTErJANlSM.  91 

upon  tliem  lier  brutal  iniiiions.  The  Seine  Avas  crim- 
soned, and  the  streets  of  Paris  flowed  in  blood.  To 
commemorate  the  event,  the  Pope  ordered  medals  to  be 
struck,  having  on  one  side  the  Pope's  head,  with  this 
inscription,  ^^  (.Tregorius  XIII. ^  Pont.  Mw.,  An.  /.",• 
on  the  other  a  destroying  angel,  holding  a  cross  in  one 
hand,  while,  with  the  other,  he  slew  the  Protestants 
with  a  sword.  On  this  side  were  inscribed  the  words, 
'' Ilugonotorvm  strages''  (slaughter  of  the  Huguenots), 
"  1572."  Special  services  of  thanksgiving  were  also 
held  in  the  churches  of  Pome. 

Jonathan  Edwards,  in  his  "History  of  Pedemption," 
says,  "  It  is  reckoned  that  about  this  time,  within  thirty 
years,  there  were  martyred  in  this  kingdom  (France), 
for  the  Protestant  religion,  39  princes,  148  counts,  234 
barons,  147,518  gentlemen,  and  760,000  of  the  common 
people."  Need  one  look  further  for  the  cause  of  the 
great  calamities  Avhicli  have  come  upon  France,  when 
thus  she  deprived  herself  of  her  best  people,  those  who 
represented  the  faith,  courage,  and  conscience  of  the 
nation?  How^  sadly  has  she  needed  this  conservative 
element  in  the  terrible  scenes  through  which  she  lias 
passed  since  then! 

This  was  the  same  year  in  which  John  Knox  died  in 
Edinburgh.  As  the  great  Scottish  Reformer,  wIk^  him- 
self had  tasted  persecution  in  France,  drew  lu^ar  his 
end  the  news  of  the  massacre  was  brought  to  him.  He 
was  greatly  moved,  and  uttered  the  following  remark- 
able words:  "Sentence  is  pronounced  in  Scotland 
against  that  murderer,  the  king  of  France,  and  God's 
vengeance  shall  never  depart  frc^m  his  house;  but  his 
name  shall  remain  an  execration  to  posterity ;  and  none 


9'2  THE  people's  history 

that  sliall  come  of  bis  loins  shall  enjoy  that  kingdom  in 
peace  and  quietness,  unless  repentance  prevent  God's 
judgment."  John  Knox  was  not  an  inspired  prophet, 
but  he  knew  that  God  reigned,  and  that  wickedness 
conld  not  long  go  unpunished.  Nearly  all  of  those 
enuaf^ed  in  the  Parisian  massacre  fell  at  Rochelle  in  the 
course  of  two  brief  ^^ears  afterwards.  And  the  young 
king,  Charles  IX.,  the  instrument  of  those  who  planned 
the  horrid  deed,  died  in  three  years,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
four,  oi  a  strange  disease  which  may  be  said  to  have 
literally  Avrapt  him  in  blood. 

The  leaders  of  the  Protestants  now  were  the  young 
Prince  of  Conde,  son  of  him  Avho  was  murdered,  and 
King  Henry  of  Navarre.  The  latter  finally  abjured  the 
Reformed  faith,  and  was  placed  on  the  throne  of  France, 
as  Henry  TV.,  but  he  did  his  old  friends  many  kind- 
nesses, the  greatest  of  which  was  the  promulgation  in 
1598,  of  the  famous  edict  of  Nantes,  so  called  from  the 
city  in  which  he  signed  it,  by  request  of  a  General 
Synod  held  at  Sedan.  This  edict  of  toleration  guar- 
anteed the  Protestants  a  certain  restricted  liberty,  and 
security  of  life  and  proj^erty.  At  this  time  also  a  large 
sum  ^\as  given  from  the  royal  treasury  to  the  seven 
hundi-ed  and  sixty-three  Eeformed  congregations  and 
their  theological  seminaries  at  Montauban  and  Saunnir. 
H<nvever,  the  edict  soon  became  a  dead  letter,  by  rea- 
s(m  of  Henry's  lust  for  Mary  de  Medici,  whom  he  wished 
to  marry.  In  order  to  do  this  it  was  necessary  to  be  di- 
vorced from  his  vdfe  by  the  Pope,  and  to  have  permis- 
sion given  to  marry  Mary.  This  was  the  Pope's  oppor- 
tunity, and  he  granted  both  requests,  on  condition  that 
Henrv  would  restore  the  Jesuits,  who  liad  1  )een  expelled 


OF  PKE8]3YTERIANIS3r.  93 

from  tlie  country,  and  tliat  lie  wonld  reneAv  the  persecu- 
tions of  the  Protestants.  One  of  the  prominent  histori- 
cal landmarks  of  that  period  was  the  siege  of  La  Rochelle, 
the  Protestant  stronghold,  1)}  Richelieu.  It  lasted  a  year, 
and  the  fall  of  the  city  was  followed  1)}'  renewed  cruel- 
ties. At  last,  in  1685,  the  edict  of  Nantes  was  revoked 
hj  Louis  XIY.  This  was  the  culminating  hlow  to  the 
Reformation  in  France,  and  one  from  which  it  has 
never  recovered.  It  required  all  pastors  to  quit  the 
country  in  fifteen  days,  under  pretence  that  the  Re- 
formed religion  had  ceased  to  exist.  All  exercise  of 
Protestant  worship  was  forbidden,  and  no  emigration 
other  than  that  of  the  pastors  was  allowed,  under  pen- 
alty of  punishment  in  the  galleys  for  men,  and  confis- 
cation of  property  and  imprisonment  for  women.  In 
spite  of  these  cruel  measures  an  enormous  emigration 
to  foreign  lands  followed,  and  it  was  made  up  of  the 
best  people  in  the  kingdom.  AVherever  they  went  on 
the  continent  of  Europe  or  in  Great  Britain,  they  were 
welcomed  as  a  most  valuable  addition  to  all  trades  and 
professions,  so  that  the  name  of  Huguenot  soon  became 
the  synonym  of  intelligence,  honesty  and  thrift.  Amer- 
ica was  also  a  great  gainer,  for  thousands  of  these  noble 
people  eventuall}^  came  to  its  shores,  and  they  and  their 
posterity  have  ranked  among  the  highest,  in  war  and 
peace,  in  all  departments  of  human  industry,  in  politi- 
cal preferment,  and  in  the  church  of  the  United  States. 
The  name  Huguenot,  at  first  a  term  of  derision,  has 
acquired,  from  the  characters  of  those  who  bore  it,  a 
heroic  lustre,  second  to  none  other  in  religious  history. 
"  Had  it  not  been  for  the  massacre  of  St.  Bai-tholomew's 
day,  and  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,"  writes 
8 


94         THE  people's  histouy  of  pkesbyterianism. 

a  (listiiignislied  Freiu'liinan  now  livino-  in  Paris,  "there 
Avould  probably  liave  been  in  our  country  at  the  present 
(Lit  from  seven  to  eight  milhons  of  Protestants." 

For  the  next  eighty  years  the  Eefornied  Church  of 
France  led  a  weary  life.  Eeduced  to  a  small  remnant, 
its  niend)ers  were  seldom  permitted  to  meet  for  worship 
or  for  conference.  Yet  it  never  died  out  entirely;  "a 
bruised  reed  shall  he  not  break,  and  smoking  flax  shall 
he  not  quench,  till  he  send  forth  judgment  unto  victory." 

From  1763  there  was  a  i*apid  increase  of  tolerance 
until  1787,  when  Louis  XY.  published  an  edict  restor- 
ing to  Protestants  all  their  natural  rights  as  citizens, 
except  to  meet  for  public  worship.  During  the  reign 
of  terror  all  pul:)lic  worship  Avas  suppressed.  Napoleon 
I.  restored  order,  but  neither  his  nor  aiiy  succeeding 
government  gave  the  Reformed  Church  of  France  the 
right  to  hold  its  General  Synod  until  1872,  when  the 
right  was  granted  under  the  administration  of  M. 
Thiers.  Deprive<l  of  its  head,  the  clnu'ch  was  not  able 
to  prevent  the  introduction  of  much  rationalism  among 
its  members.  In  1849  there  was  a  secession  of  evan- 
gelicals, who  organized  an  Evangelical  Union.  The  old 
church  is  becoming  stronger  now,  and  the  Evangelical 
party  within  it  seem  likely  to  be  able  eventually  to 
control  its  action.  There  are  many  signs  of  ne^y  life 
among  the  lleformed  of  France  at  this  time,  such  as  to 
leave  us  not  without  hope  of  the  return  of  those  days, 
short-liy(^d  l)ut  glorious,  when  theirs  was  the  most  com- 
pletely developed  Protestant  church  in  Europe. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

The  Extension  of  Libekty  and  Tkuth  to  Holland. 

THE  Eeforiiiatiou  came  into  Holland  from  Germany 
and  France,  especially  from  the  latter,  and  early  as- 
sumed tlie  Calyinistic  form  of  doctrine  and  j^overnment. 
Erasmus,  the  brilliant  scholar  of  Rotterdam,  contem- 
porary with  Luther,  may  be  said  to  liaye  prepared  the 
way  for  the  Reformation,  though  not  distinctly  a  Re- 
former. He  condemned  the  errors  of  Romanism,  but 
his  feeling  was  more  esthetic  than  moral  indignation. 
He  loyed  peace  rather  than  the  truth,  and  though  for 
a  time  friendly  with  the  Reformers,  he  neyer  left  the 
apostate  church.  His  seryices  to  the  cause  Avere  in  the 
way  of  promoting  the  great  reyiyal  of  humanistic  learn- 
ing which  preceded  and  accompanied  the  Reformation. 
Luther  said,  "  I  fear  that  Erasmus  does  not  sufficiently 
exalt  Christ  and  the  diyine  grace."  Mr.  Froude  wrote 
of  these  two  men,  "  In  Luther,  belief  in  God  was  the  first 
principle  in  life  ;  in  Erasmus,  it  was  an  inference  which 
might  be  taken  away,  and  yet  leaye  the  world  a  yery 
tolerable  and  habitable  place."  His  enemies  declared, 
neyei-theless,  that  he  "  laid  the  egg  which  Luther  hatched 
out." 

The  reyiyal  of  intellectual  activity  was  yery  marked 
in  Holland,  whose  inhabitants  haye  been  termed,  by  an 
eminent  historian,  "the  most   cpiick-witted  people   in 
95 


96  thp!  PEorLE's  history. 

Europe."  Tlicv  Avere  alive  to  the  discussions  wliicli 
were  going  on  in  many  quarters,  and  sympathized  to 
the  deepest  degree  in  the  struggle  to  throw  (jli'  the  yoke 
of  religious  oppression.  Attachment  to  popery  had 
never  heen  strong  in  the  Netherlands,  and  the  liberty- 
loving  Dutch  were  prepared  to  receive  the  Eeformation 
with  enthusiasm.  But  they  were  not  allowed  to  change 
their  religion  in  peace.  The  persecutions  the}'  endured 
make  one  of  the  darkest  pictures  in  history,  and  with 
them  will  be  associated  forever,  covered  with  obloquy 
and  execration,  the  name  of  the  Duke  of  Alva.  He  was 
sent,  in  1567,  by  his  master,  Philip  II.,  King  of  Spain, 
a  bigoted  Eoman  Catholic,  to  extirpate  heresy  in  Hol- 
land, ^^-llicll  country  was  at  that  time  held  in  subjection 
to  the  Spanish  crown.  His  army  nundiered  ten  thou- 
sand men,  mostly  mercenaries,  and  he  Avas  clothed  with 
full  pow  ers  for  this  nefarious  mission.  He  established 
a  tribunal  that  soon  became  known  as  the  "Court  of 
Blood,"  which  was  to  try  and  condemn  the  offending 
Protestants.  Many  cities  openly  declared  against  the 
oppressive  measures  of  Alva,  and  combined  for  their 
(common  defence.  The  States-General,  assend)led  at 
Dordrecht,  marshaled  under  the  leadership  of  "  William 
the  Silent,"  Prince  of  Orange.  This  wonderful  man, 
who  became  a  strong  Calvinist,  occupied,  for  a  long  time, 
the  most  prominent  place  among  the  Protestants  of  his 
day.  His  first  effoi-ts  were  by  no  means  successful  in 
attempting  to  resist  the  bloody  tyrant.  A  great  portion 
of  the  country  was  pillaged,  and  multitudes  were  killed 
in  battle,  or  massacred  after  defeat.  The  Spaniards 
plundered  wherever  they  conquered,  claiming  that 
everything  had  1  )een  forfeited  1  )y  rebelli( )n.    But  the  piti- 


OP  PRESBYTERIA^^ISM.  97 

less  severity  of  their  oppressors  only  intensified  the  de- 
termination of  the  Netherlanders,  and  stirred  up,  finally, 
a  desperate  resistance  which  the  discipline,  of  the  Span- 
ish soldiery  and  the  skill  of  their  commander,  the  most 
consummate  general  in  Europe,  were  unable  to  with- 
stand. The  Duke  of  Alva,  worn  by  ill-health  and  re- 
peated disasters,  was  at  length  recalled  to  Spain,  whither 
he  now  returned,  boasting,  that  besides  the  great  num- 
bers slain  on  the  field,  he  had  committed  eighteen  thou- 
sand persons  to  the  executioner.  AVilliam  was  then  pro- 
claimed governor  or  regent,  with  full  authority  on  land 
and  sea.  In  1581  seven  provinces  declared  their  inde- 
pendence of  Spain,  and  Holland  and  Zealand  proclaimed 
William  as  their  sovereign,  though  he  did  not  accept  the 
iKUior  and  office  until  the  year  following.  Spain  was 
not  ready  to  take  up  this  gauntlet,  and  so  issued  an 
infamous  proclamation,  offering  rewards  and  honors  to 
any  one  who  would  serve  the  church  and  king  by  murder- 
ing William.  He  was  miserably  assassinated  July  10, 
1581;  and  so  perished  the  "Father  WiUiam"  of  the 
Dutch,  one  whom  a  high  English  authority  declares  t(^ 
have  l)een  "the  only  man  in  the  world's  history  who 
may  be  fairly  compared  with  Washington."  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Maurice,  than  whom  a  fitter  man 
could  hardly  have  l)een  imagined  to  carry  on  the  strug- 
gle for  independence,  which  was  fraught  with  interest, 
not  only  to  those  immediately  concerned  in  it,  but  also 
to  all  lovers  of  lilierty  and  friends  of  truth.  It  was 
finally  successful,  accomplishing  their  severance  from 
the  Spanish  crown,  and  also  their  emancipation  from 
the  thraldom  of  the  Roman  Church. 

The  first  Dutch  Reformed  Synod  was  held  at  D(^rt  in 


98        ,  THE  people's  history. 

1574,  and  tlie  next  year  the  University  of  Leyden  was 
fonnded.  A  thoroughly  Calvinistic  system  of  doctrine 
was  adopted,  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  becoming  their 
principal  standard.  A  great  controversy  arose  in  the 
church,  Avliich  led  to  the  famous  Synod  of  Doi-t  of  the 
3'ear  1618.  The  occasion  of  this  was  the  teaching,  by 
Jacol)us  Arminius,  an  undenial)ly  good  and  learned 
man,  of  the  doctrine  of  ''  cnndfttnnal  electhmr  His 
doctrine  Avas,  that  God  conditions  his  election  of  the 
saved  upc^n  their  foreseen  good  works  and  faith.  This 
l)eing  at  variance  with  the  Calvinistic  faith  of  the  Re- 
formed churches  in  general,  was  condemned  l\y  the 
Synod,  and  a  statement  of  doctrine  adopted  entirely 
opposed  to  this  theory.  Arminius  and  his  followers 
remonstrated  against  the  decision,  gaining  for  them- 
selves the  title  of  "Remonstrants,"  and  were  separated 
from  the  Reformed  Church.  During  the  eighteenth 
century  their  doctrines,  henceforth  called  "Arininian- 
ism,"  had  considerable  influence  in  some  sections  of 
Europe,  and  were  adopted,  under  the  lead  of  Wesley  in 
England,  for  the  Wesleyan  or  Methodist  Church,  which 
it  still  continues  to  hold. 

The  Reformed  Dutch  Church  has  sent  out  many  ex- 
cellent members  to  various  parts  of  the  new  and  old 
worlds,  Avho  have  been  potent  factors  in  most  of  the 
great  struggles  for  human  liberty  in  modern  times.  A 
large  number  came  across  the  Atlantic,  settling  about 
the  Hudson  river  region,  where  they  organized  the  first 
Reformed  congregation  in  America,  and  established 
New  Amsterdam,  which  afterwards  became  the  city  of 
New  York.  There  are  now  several  offshoots  of  this 
branch  of  the  great  family  of  Reformed  or  Presbyterian 


OF  PRESBYTEEIANISM.  99 

cliiirclies  in  ])otli  hemispheres,  notably  the  Reformed 
(Dutch)  Church  in  the  United  States,  a  large  evangeli- 
cal and  influential  denomination.  According  to  a  re- 
cent national  census  of  Holland,  the  old  mother  Re- 
formed Church  of  that  country  has  1,956,852  adherents. 
This  church  and  its  great  daughter,  the  Reformed  (Dutch) 
Church  in  the  United  States,  like  most  of  our  clmrches 
in  other  than  English  speaking  countries,  uses  a  brief 
evangelical  liturgy  in  pul^lic  worship.  It  may  also  be 
stated  just  here,  that  the  black  gown  is  worn  in  the 
pulpit  b}^  nearly  all  Presliyterian  or  Reformed  minis- 
ters on  the  continent  of  Europe,  in  England,  Scotland, 
Ireland,  and  in  most  other  parts  of  the  world  where  our 
denomination  has  been  established,  except  in  America  ; 
and  even  here  this  solemn  symbol  of  the  sacred  office 
has  not  been  universally  discarded,  but  is  used  by  the 
Reformed  (Dutch)  Church,  and  by  an  increasing  num- 
ber of  ministers  in  various  branches  of  the  Presbyterian 
family. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

Glimpses  East  of  the  Alps  and  the  Rhl\e. 

IN  GerinaiiY,  where  the  Reform«iti()ii  accomphshecl  its 
first  great  victories,  its  type  was  mainly  "Lutheran," 
as  distinguished  from  "Eef(U-med."  Mai-tin  Luther, 
hy  his  powerful  genius,  easily  impressed  his  yiews  of 
tlie  Lord's  Supper  upon  the  greater  number  of  his  fel- 
low eountrymeii.  It  was  on  the  question  of  the  ''real 
presence"  of  the  body  of  Christ  in  the  sacrament  that 
the  Protestants  of  the  sixteenth  century  divided,  the 
"Reformed"  denying,  and  the  "Lutherans"  affirming 
it.  Still  there  were  great  nunil)ers  of  the  Reformed 
v\ew  in  Germany,  and  there  are  now  considerable  bodies 
of  that  faith  in  various  parts  of  the  empire.  The  mat- 
ter of  church  government  did  not  receive  in  that  coun- 
try the  attention  it  deserved,  and  which  was  given  to 
it  among  the  Swiss,  the  French,  and  in  the  British 
Isles.  It  was  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  civil  rulers  in 
Germany,  who,  not  being  versed  in  such  things,  could 
hardly  be  expected  to  formulate  a  very  logical  or  scrij)- 
tural  system.  It  was,  however,  largely  Presb^-terian 
even  anuuig  the  Lutherans,  though  encumbered  Avith 
some  features  which  were  foreign  to  that  principle. 

The  German  Reformed  communion  adopted  what 
has  gone  into  history  under  tlie  name  of  the  "Heidel- 
berg  Catechism."      This   was   prepared  by   Zacharins 

lOO 


THE  TEOPLE's  HISTOKY  OF  riiESBYTEPJANISM.         101 

ITrsiiius  and  Kasi)ar  Oleviauus,  by  order  of  the  Elector 
Frederick  III.,  or  ''the  Pious,"  and  adopted  in  1503. 
It  came  into  general  use,  not  only  among  the  Reformed 
in  Germany,  but  also  in  the  Netherlands,  Hungary, 
Transylvania,  and  afterwards  in  America.  Its  authors 
had  l)otli  lived  in  Zurich  and  Geneva,  and  it  is  easy  to 
see  the  influence  of  ZwingH  and  C-alvin  in  this  famous 
doctrinal  syndjol. 

By  the  treaty  of  Westphaha,  in  1648,  equal  rights 
were  guaranteed  the  Roman  Cathohcs,  the  Lutherans, 
and  the  Reformed.  These  two  latter  denominations 
are  to  this  day  recognized  and  supported  h\  the  Ger- 
man governments,  either  united  in  one  organization 
under  the  name  of  the  EvangeHcal  Church,  as  is  the 
case  in  Baden,  Prussia,  Wiirtemburg,  and  other  states, 
or  in  their  separate  existence,  as  in  Hanover,  Bremen, 
Brandenburg,  and  many  other  provinces.  The  Reformed 
Church  of  Hanover  has  50,000  adherents;  that  of 
Bremen  the  same  number,  and  that  of  the  Rhine  pro- 
vinces, 500,000.  The  Reformed  Church  of  Branden- 
burg has  more  than  twenty  congregations,  amongst 
them  that  of  the  Cathedral  of  Berlin,  of  which  the  Em- 
peror of  Germany  and  his  family  are  members,  all 
under  the  control  of  the  royal  consistory. 

Those  Reformed  Churches  of  Germany  which  have 
gone  into  a  sort  of  formal  union  with  the  Lutherans, 
generally  maintain  their  own  creed,  and  use  the  Heidel- 
berg Catechism. 

It  should  be  stated  before  leaving  this  pai-t  of  Europe, 
that  in  the  kingdom  of  Poland  there  is  now  a  Reformed 
Church,  with  ten  congregations  and  6,000  adherents. 

It  will  be  a  surprise  to  many  readers  to  learn  that  in 


102  THE  people's  HISTOIIY 

Hungary,  now  a  part  of  the  Austro-Hnngarian  empire, 
there  is  a  body  of  Presbyterians  or  Eefornied  nnniber- 
ing,  according  to  governmental  statistics,  2,031,243  ad- 
herents. Througli  the  medium  of  the  "AUiance  of 
Reformed  Churches  thronghont  the  world  holding  the 
Presbyterian  system,"  this  and  many  other  meml^ers  of 
the  great  sisterhood  are  being  brought  into  correspon- 
dence with  the  American  and  British  churches  from 
which  they  have  been  separated  by  distance  and  1)A' 
ditt'erence  of  language. 

The  Reformation  was  at  first  introduced  into  Hun- 
gary chiefly  by  students  avIio  had  studied  in  the  Uni- 
yersity  of  Wittenburg  from  1522  to  1560.  In  1525  the 
Hungarian  Diet  ordered  all  the  Lutherans  burnt.  But 
in  spite  of  })ersecutions  the  Avork  went  on  in  this  l)eau- 
tiful  country,  until  Synods  were  held  in  two  places  in 
1545 ;  and  by  the  year  1558,  the  Reformation  in  the 
Lutheran  form  was  spread  throughout  the  land,  A 
change  of  yicAvs  in  the  direction  of  Calyinism  soon  be- 
gan among  the  Reformed,  partly  by  the  influence  of 
certain  eminent  men  who  had  studied  in  Switzerland, 
and  partly  by  the  dissemination  of  the  writings  of  Bul- 
linger,  Beza  and  Calyin.  The  Synod  of  1566,  under 
the  presidency  of  Gaspar  Karolyi,  translator  of  the 
Hungarian  Bible,  adopted  the  Genevan  Catechism, 
written  by  Calvin.  At  the  same  time  it  was  ordered 
that  bread  be  substituted  for  the  wafer  in  the  com- 
munion. At  a  subsequent  Synod,  the  Heidelberg  Cate- 
chism, and  the  second  Helvetic  C^:)nfession  were  added 
to  the  doctrinal  standards  of  the  church.  In  Hungary, 
as  elsewhere,  the  Reformed  were  not  allowed  to  exer- 
cise their  religion  without  cruel  opposition  from  the 


OF  PKESBYTERIANISM.  108 

Roman  Cjitliolics,  and  tliey  had  to  maintain  their  faith 
in  the  midst  of  fiery  trials.  God  gave  grace  to  with- 
stand the  hatred  of  their  enemies,  and  they  have  sur- 
vived as  a  very  hirge  l)odv  to  this  day.  Indeed  seldom, 
if  ever,  has  the  Reformation,  once  established,  been 
totally  destroyed  in  any  country. 

This  completes  our  present  brief  review  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  establishment  of  the  ecclesiastical  republics 
holding  the  Calvinistic  theology  and  the  Presbj-terian 
government  on  the  European  continent.  Let  us  now 
cross  the  British  channel,  and  begin  to  trace  the  out- 
lines of  what  was  really  a  part  of  the  same  great  move- 
ment among  the  English  speaking  race. 


(CHAPTER  XIY. 

Scotland. — The  RETUiiNiNG  Day. 

rriHE  religious  condition  of  Scotland  l)efore  the  l{e- 
_1_  formation  of  the  sixteenth  century  Avas  most  de-  ; 
plorable.  In  no  part  of  Western  Europe  had  the 
degradation  of  the  morals  of  the  clergy  been  made  more 
complete.  The  bishops  had  long  since  giyen  up  in- 
structing the  people,  and  were  not  ashamed  to  boast 
that  they  knew  nothing  of  the  Scriptures.  Neither 
they  nor  their  priests  ever  preached  the  gospel,  and  all 
the  teaching  the  people  received  was  fr<^m  mendicant 
monks,  avIio  wandered  al^out  using  their  office  for  mer- 
cenary ends.  Fully  one-half  of  the  wealth  of  the  coun- 
try had  l)een  absorbed  into  the  Roman  C^itholic  Church, 
by  a  system  of  exactions  in  all  the  atiairs  of  life  where 
the  services  of  religion  were  recpiired.  Even  on  his 
death-bed,  a  man  was  persuaded  to  save  his  soul  by 
bequests  to  the  rapacious  ecclesiastics,  and  after  life 
depai-ted,  the  priest  demanded  his  "corpse-present  " 
from  the  scnTowing  family.  The  nation  was  continually 
drained  of  its  substance,  and  countless  monasteries  and 
useless  cathedrals  were  1  )uilt  with  what  should  have  gone  j 
to  make  homes  f(  )r  the  poor.  In  these  places  of  worship, 
besides  the  mund)led  prayers  in  a  fc^reign  tongue,  no- 
thing was  given  the  people  but  absurd  harrangues 
about  combats  with  the  devil,  i)enances,  the  cures  bv 
104 


THE  people's  history  OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.        105 

holy  water  and  relics  of  saints,  and  the  merit  of  pil- 
grimages to  sacred  shrines,  while  the  gospel,  which  "  is 
the  power  of  God  unto  salvation,"  was  utterly  neglected. 

Under  these  conditions  the  morals  of  the  clergy  fell 
to  the  lowest  point.  They  were  free  from  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  secular  courts,  and  felt  at  lil)erty  to  indulge 
in  every  form  of  wickedness.  Their  shameless  glut- 
tony and  drunkenness  were  not  the  worst  of  their  vices, 
but  they  wallowed  in  the  grossest  lasciviousness.  While 
professing  charity,  and  forbidden,  under  severe  penal- 
ties, to  marry,  they  led  lives  in  open  violation  of  all 
decency  and  virtue,  too  base  to  be  described,  bestowing 
uj)on  their  bastard  sons  lucrative  places  in  the  church 
and  the  state.  No  reading  of  the  Bible  was  allowed, 
nor  any  criticism  of  this  frightful  immorality.  Perse- 
cution was  their  weapon  of  defence  against  proposed 
amendment,  and  for  any  one  to  attempt  resistance  to 
the  flood  of  evil  was  to  lay  down  his  life,  in  a  dungeon 
or  at  the  stake,  and  when,  at  last,  the  new  life  showed 
itself  in  the  nation,  the  measures  adopted  by  the  priest- 
hood were  the  same  as  those  of  Herod  at  the  bii-th  of 
Christ,  when  he  sought  to  save  himself  by  the  massacre 
of  the  innocents.  Death  to  all  heretics  was  the  rem- 
edy proposed  for  suppressing  the  Eeformation  when  it 
began. 

The  final  suppression  of  the  CHildees  as  an  organiza- 
tion, in  1297,  that  being  the  date  of  their  last  public 
documents,  gave  the  apostate  church  control  of  the  na- 
tion, though  there,  no  doubt,  were  individuals  or  groups 
here  and  there  which  dissented  from  the  doctrines  and 
practices  which  were  generally  received.  In  1407  John 
Resby, .  an   Englishman,   a   disciple   of  Wickhffe,  was 

9 


106  THE  I'EOrLE'.S  HISTOIJY 

hurned  for  denouncing  some  of  tlie  sins  of  the  cliurcli. 
Twenty-live  years  aftei wards,  Panl  Craw,  a  Bohemian, 
and  follower  of  Hnss,  attempted  to  preach  in  Scotland 
the  doctrines  of  a  purer  faith.  He  was  convicted  of 
denying  transuhstantiation,  confession,  the  worship  of 
saints,  and  committed  to  the  fires  of  martyTdom  in  1432 
at  St.  Andrews.  Lest  he  might  proclaim  his  heresies 
in  his  last  moments,  a  brass  ball  was  fastened  in  his 
mouth  until  liis  poor  body  crumbled  into  ashes.  Another 
protest  Avas  made  in  the  west  of  Scotland  in  1494.  Those 
concerned  in  it  were  opprobriously  termed  Lollards, 
and  were  tried  before  the  king.  But  he  had  too  much 
good  sense  to  condemn  them  for  what  he  must  have 
seen  had  much  of  reason  and  truth  in  it,  and  dismissed 
them  with  an  admonition. 

A  potent  influence  in  Ininging  aljout  the  Reformation 
in  Scotland,  as  in  all  other  countries,  was  the  transla- 
tion of  the  Scriptures  into  the  language  of  the  common 
people.  William  Tjndale,  who  gave  the  Bible  to  the 
people  of  England  and  Scotland,  has  never  received  the 
honor  which  he  deserved  as  one  of  the  foremost  men  of 
the  Reformation  in  Great  Britain.  His  Bibles,  along 
with  the  writings  of  other  Reformers,  were  secretly  im- 
poi-ted  into  Scotland,  and  handed  from  group  to  group 
of  anxious  seekers  after  truth,  to  be  read  aloud  in  cpiiet 
places,  and  often  at  the  dead  of  night.  Thus  the 
"leaven"  was  introduced  which  Avrought  such  vast 
changes  in  Scotland. 

The  name  of  Patrick  Hamilton,  who  now  appears  on 
the  scene,  stands  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  Scottish 
martyrs.  He  was  of  royal  lineage,  a  cousin  of  tlic 
y<mmi  Kinu-  James  Y.,  and  had  been  dedicated  to  tlic 


OF  ITiESliYTEKIANISM.  107 

priestli(3od  from  his  birtli,  the  abl)cicy  of  Feriie  l)eii)g 
conferred  upon  him  in  infancy.  Being  a  youth  of  su- 
perior talents,  fond  of  learning,  he  early  gave  cause  for 
uneasiness  among  the  faithful  servants  of  the  church 
by  his  researches  in  the  field  of  ancient  literature. 
Comparing  the  apostolic  times  with  those  in  which  he 
lived,  he  saw  much  to  condemn,  and  was  not  backward 
in  passing  censure  upon  the  corruptions  evervAvhere 
manifest.  From  considerations  of  personal  safety,  for 
there  were  mutterings  of  a  storm  gathering  against  him, 
or  from  a  desire  to  learn  more  of  the  truth,  he  left  the 
country,  and  spent  some  time  in  Wittenberg,  under  the 
instructions  of  Luther  and  Melancthon.  The  more  he 
progressed  in  saving  knowledge  and  in  piety,  the 
stronger  became  his  desire  to  return  to  Scotland,  that 
he  might  preach  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation  to 
his  own  people.  The  appearance  of  this  noble  youth 
in  Scotland  again  attracted  general  attention.  His 
rank,  his  eoui-teous  manners,  his  scholarly  attainments 
and  his  eloquence,  as  he  taught  the  people,  seemed 
well-nigh  irresistible,  and  a  profound  impression  was 
made  throughout  the  land.  So  great  ^as  the  rising 
power  of  Patrick  Hamilt(Ui,  fresh  from  the  Reformation 
scenes  of  Germany,  that  it  at  once  became  evident 
he  could  not  be  tolerated,  and  the  only  safety  for  the 
hierarchy  lay  in  his  removal,  which  was  accomplished 
in  1528.  The  cunning  clergy  contrived  to  get  the  king, 
his  cousin,  away  to  a  distant  part  of  the  realm,  and  then 
decoyed  the  young  reformer  to  St.  Andrews,  under 
pretence  of  wishing  to  hold  a  conference  with  him. 
Having  elicited  a  full  avowal  of  his  opinions,  they 
caused  him  to  be  apprehended,  at  night,  and  confined 


108  THE  people's  history 

ill  tlie  castle.  The  next  clay,  lest  by  some  cliauce  their 
^•ictilll  iiii<^lit  escape,  he  was  brought  before  a  coiiveii- 
tioii,  consisting  of  the  archbishop,  a  number  of  bishops, 
abbots,  priors,  and  other  dignitaries  of  the  church,  and 
condemned  him  to  be  burned  at  the  stake.  The  sen- 
tence was  executed  before  the  sun  went  down.  As  the 
tiames  consumed  him,  he  cried  out,  "  How  long,  O  Lord, 
shall  darkness  cover  this  realm  ?  How  long  Avilt  thou 
suffer  this  t}Tanny  of  man?  Lord  Jesus,  receive  my 
spirit!"  And  so  passed  away  a  heroic  soul,  but  his 
testimony  remained,  and  the  gospel  he  preached  went 
on  performing  its  divine  mission.  There  is  no  doubt 
but  that  the  death  of  Patrick  Hamilton,  at  the  early  age 
of  twenty-four,  accomplished  more  than  his  life  could 
have  done,  however  long,  for  it  set  the  nation  to  asking 
why  he  died,  and  to  an  earnest  inquiry  into  the  great 
questions  which  underlie  the  existence  of  the  church 
and  its  work  in  the  world.  Many  others  now  began  to 
proclaim  the  new  doctrines,  Avhicli  were  really  the  old 
truths  of  the  Scriptures;  and  when  the  arclil)ishop  pro- 
posed to  i)ut  to  death  all  who  were  guilty  of  the  crime 
of  preaching  the  gospel,  he  was  shrewdly  advised  to 
"burn  them  in  cellars,  for  the  smoke  of  Mr.  Patrick 
Hamilton  hath  infected  as  many  as  it  hath  blown 
upon."  However,  the  cruel  persecutions  were  at  length 
resumed,  and  many  suffered  martyrdom  for  the  faith. 

The  next  famous  man  in  the  history  of  those  bloody 
times  is  David  Beaton,  a  man  of  talent  and  unscrupu- 
lous ambition,  who  is  l)etter  known  as  Cardinal  Beaton. 
He  conceived  his  mission  to  be  to  extirpate  all  heretics. 
Among  his  many  hideous  deeds  may  be  mentioned  the  f 
massacre  of  the  martyrs  of  Pei-th,  in  1543.     Five  men 


i 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  109 

and  one  woman  were  brought  before  him  charged  ^\ith 
heresy.  The  men  were  hanged,  but  the  woman  drowned 
in  a  pool.  Her  crime  was  having  refused  to  pray  to  the 
Virgin.  Her  husband  was  executed  before  her  eyes, 
and  then  she  was  dragged  off,  with  her  infant  at  her 
breast,  to  the  fatal  shore.  She  committed  her  child  to 
one  of  her  own  sex  who  stood  by,  and  was  mercilessly 
cast  into  the  water.     Her  name  was  Helen  Stark. 

Cardinal  Beaton  pursued  his  dreadful  work  in  various 
quarters,  vainly  fighting  against  God  in  the  persecution 
of  his  saints ;  but  he  was  soon  to  add  another  distin- 
guished name  to  the  roll  of  Scottish  martyrs,  that  of 
George  Wishai-t,  brother  of  the  Laird  of  Pittarrow. 
He  was  an  eloquent  and  heroic  preacher,  who  shunned 
not  to  declare  the  whole  counsel  of  God. 

Having  been  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  this  infamous 
cardinal,  he  was  carried  to  St.  Andrews,  in  1546,  the 
year  of  Luther's  death,  to  be  tried  and  condemned. 
With  bags  of  gunpowder  hanging  to  his  person,  he  was 
led,  heavily  ironed,  to  the  stake,  which  had  been  fixed 
in  a  convenient  place,  where  Beaton  and  his  retinue 
could  look  upon  his  agonies  from  the  castle  battlements, 
which  had  been  richly  draped  with  tapestry,  and  pro- 
vided with  cushions  for  their  comfort.  The  sainted 
martyr  kneeled  down  and  prayed  three  times,  "O  thou 
Saviour  of  the  world,  have  mercy  on  me !  Father  in 
heaven,  I  commend  my  spirit  into  thy  holy  hands!" 
The  executioner  cast  himself  upon  the  ground,  begging 
forgiveness  for  what  he  was  reluctantly  al^out  to  do. 
Wishart  freely  assented,  and  kissed  him.  When  the 
fires  were  lighted,  the  unconfined  gunpowder,  though 
it  exploded,  did  not  put  an  end  to  his  sufterings.     As 


110  THE  people's  HISTOEY 

liis  lower  limbs  Avere  consumed,  lie  exclaimed,  "This 
fire  torments  my  l)ody,  but  in  no  way  al)ates  my  spirit!" 
Then,  looking  towards  the  cardinal,  he  uttered  these 
memorable  words,  "He  who  in  such  state  from  that 
high  place  feedeth  his  eyes  with  my  torments,  within 
feAV  days  shall  be  hanged  out  at  the  same  window,  to 
be  seen  with  as  much  ignominy  as  he  now  leaneth  there 
in  pride."  The  rope  was  then  tightened  about  his  neck, 
and  his  A^oice  was  silenced  on  eai*th,  that  it  might  l)e 
heard  among  the  blood- washed  throng  in  heaven. 

A  number  of  noblemen  and  others,  stirred  with  in- 
dignation l)y  this  wretched  business,  determined  upon 
the  death  of  the  hated  cardinal.  So,  on  a  subsequent 
day,  they  entered  the  castle,  and  put  him  to  the  SAvord, 
while  he  hoAvled  for  mercy,  and  cried  out,  "  I  am  a  priest, 
I  am  a  priest !  fie !  fie !  all  is  gone !"  His  body  Avas  then 
exposed  for  AieAA'  to  the  assembled  populace,  at  the 
same  windoAv  from  which  he  had  gazed  up(m  the 
dying  agonies  of  George  AVishai't,  The  people  regarded 
it  as  an  act  of  just  retribution,  and  AA'itli  a  feeling  of 
stern  satisfaction  returned  quietly  to  their  homes. 

Soon  after  this,  perhaps  the  greatest  Scotchman  avIio 
eA'er  liA'ed,  certainly  the  most  useful  one,  made  his  home 
in  St.  AndreAvs,  as  co-laborer  Avitli  John  Eough,  to  help 
him  in  his  contest  Avitli  the  Komanists,  for  Avhich  he 
felt  himself  insufficient.  The  person  AAdiom  Eough  se- 
lected and  succeeded  in  securing  by  his  urgenc}'  for  the 
Avork  Avas  John  Knox,  the  man  of  all  others  who  has 
done  most  for  the  religion  of  the  English  speaking 
vnvv,  and  Avho,  Avitli  Luther  and  Calvin,  completes  the 
splendid  triumvirate  of  the  Eeformation.  He  Avas 
about  Ijeginning  a  Avorkof  Avhich  Thomas  Carlyle  after- 


OF  PRERP.YTEPJAXISM.  Ill 

wards  wrote:  "That  wliioli  John  Knox  did  for  his  na- 
tion, I  say,  we  may  really  call  a  resui'iection  as  from 

death The  people  l)egan  to  Ih^e ;  they  needed 

first  of  all  t(^  do  that,  at  what  cost  and  costs  soeyei'. 
Scotch  literature  and  thought,  Scotch  industry,  James 
AYatt,  Dayid  Hume,  Walter  Scott,  Robert  Burns, — I 
find  Knox  and  the  Reformation  acting  in  the  heart's 
core  of  eyery  one  of  these  persons  and  phenomena.  He 
is  the  one  Scotchman  to  Avhom  his  country  and  the 
world  owe  a  debt.  .  .  .  Honor  him !  His  works  liaye 
not  died.  The  letter  of  his  works  dies,  as  of  all  men's, 
but  the  spirit  of  it  neyer!" 


CHAPTER  XT. 

John  Knox,  the  Eeformer. 

THE  hirtli  place  of  the  hero  of  the  Scottish  Ee- 
foniiation  is  not  known  with  certainty.  It  was 
either  Gifford  or  Haddington ;  the  date  was  1505.  His 
education  was  begun  at  Haddington,  and  continued  in 
the  University  of  Glasgow.  He  early  mastered  the 
Latin  language,  and  acquired  Greek  liefore  he  attained 
middle-age,  l)ut  was  ignorant  of  Hebrew  until  he  passed 
foi-ty-fiye.  His  character  was  much  influenced  by  John 
Major,  a  professor  of  moral  philosophy  and  theology  in 
Glasgow,  and  principles  were  acquired  from  him  which 
were  potent  in  his  after  life.  Knox  was  an  ardent  stu- 
dent, not  (mly  of  the  secular  branches,  but  also  of  divine 
truth.  One  of  his  favorite  authors  was  Augustine, 
whose  writings  aided  largely  in  forming  within  him 
views  of  ecclesiastical  government  and  doctrine  entirely 
oj)p()se(l  to  the  received  tenets  of  his  time.  It  was  at 
the  age  of  thirty  years  he  l)egan  to  throw  off  the  shackles 
of  E(^manism,  l)ut  not  until  seven  years  afterwards  did 
he  formally  declare  himself  a  Protestant.  The  Reformed 
doctrine  had  made  considerable  progress  in  Scotland 
l)efore  Knox  accepted  it.  He  had  been  teaching  in 
St  Andrews,  Init  finding  it  impossible  to  remain  in  a 
place  so  completely  under  the  power  of  Cardinal  Bea- 
ton he  removed  to  the  south,  and  there  avowed  the 


THE  PEOrLE's  HISTOIIY  OF  I'ltESBYTEllIANISM.         118 

cluiiige  in  his  opinions.  Tlie  curdinjil  denounced  liini 
as  a  heretic,  and  sent  assassins  to  put  him  out  of  the 
way,  but  through  the  kindness  of  a  powerful  friend  he 
escaped.  He  at  length  returned  to  St.  Andrews,  which, 
after  the  death  of  Cardinal  Beaton,  remained  in  the 
hands  of  the  Protestants,  John  Eough  was  their  chap- 
lain, and  Knox  was  engaged  as  a  teacher,  for  Avliich 
position  he  was  well  cpialified.  But  he  was  soon  called 
by  the  people,  at  the  instance  of  John  Bough,  to  the 
higher  office  of  preaching  the  gospel.  It  was  in  the 
church,  Avhile  the  congregation  Avere  assembled  for  wor- 
ship, that  Bough  informed  him  publicly  of  his  call,  and 
strongly  urged  his  acceptance.  Knox,  who  seems  to  have 
l)een  unprepared  for  such  an  announcement,  attempted 
to  speak,  but  was  (Overcome  by  his  feelings,  and,  burst- 
ing into  tears,  rushed  from  the  place.  But  on  mature 
reflection  he  accepted,  for  he  dared  not  decline  the  call 
of  God  through  his  people. 

This  was  the  beginning  of  his  public  work,  and  he  at 
once  proceeded  to  instruct  the  people  on  the  nature  of 
the  great  controversy  of  the  day.  Instead  of  arguing 
about  forms,  ceremonies,  the  mass,  confession,  and  the 
like,  he  showed  the  genius  of  the  true  reformer,  by 
going  to  the  heart  of  the  matter,  and  denounced  the 
Church  of  Bome  as  Antichrist.  This  proposition  being 
placed  before  the  public  mind,  the  relative  positions  of 
the  two  parties  changed.  The  Bomanists  were  thrown 
upon  the  defensive,  and  the  Protestants  became  the  at- 
tacking party.  Instead  of  apologizing  for  their  exis- 
tence, they  now  felt  that  natural  enthusiasm  of  those  who 
have  a  great  mission  to  accomplish.  They  gained  rapidly 
in  the  confidence  and  support  of  a  people  who  have  ever 


114  THE  people's  HISTOPtY 

shown  iid miration  for  courage  and  devotion  to  principle. 
A  public  disputation,  held  in  8t.  AndreAvs  between  Knox 
and  Kougli  on  one  side,  and  the  Romanists  on  the 
other,  resulted  in  the  disgraceful  defeat  of  the  latter, 
Avho  proved  unalile  to  demonstrate  the  righteousness  of 
their  cause.  There  were  other  means  than  argument, 
available  to  the  enemies  of  the  Reformation,  and  they 
procured  the  assistance  of  a  French  fleet  to  compel  the 
surrender  of  the  castle  of  St.  Andrews,  at  the  same  time 
cutting  off  supplies  from  the  land.  The  siege  Avas  suc- 
cessful, and  the  place  was  forced  to  capitulate  in  July, 
1547,  stipulating  that  the  lives  and  liberties  of  the  l)e- 
sieged  should  be  preserved.  But  no  regard  was  paid 
to  these  promises,  for  the  captives,  Knox  1)eing  one  of 
them,  were  carried  away  to  France,  heavily  ironed,  and 
there  confined  to  the  galleys  as  slaves.  Here  our  Re- 
former nearly  died  from  sickness,  during  nineteen 
months  of  servitude.  The  end  of  this  mysterious  provi- 
(h'Dce,  however,  became  manifest  afterAvards,  for  God 
had  a  school  of  preparation  and  a  Avork  for  him  else- 
Avhere.  As  soon  as  he  was  released  from  bondage  he 
repaired  to  England. 

Henry  YIII.  Avas  dead,  and  Archbishop  C'ranmer  Avas 
noAv  free  to  carry  on  the  Avork  of  reforming  the  English 
church.  Henry  was  no  reformer,  but  had  renounced 
allegiance  to  the  Papal  See,  because  he  felt  his  personal 
desires  as  Avell  as  his  royal  authority  hampered  by  the 
control  of  Rome.  (Commanding  his  subjects  to  fc^lloAV 
his  exjimple,  he  punished  those  Avho  dissented  from 
him,  the  English  Pope,  Avith  almost  as  great  seA^erity  as 
the  Roman  Pontiif  had  done.  LaAvs  were  enacted  by 
his  parliament  against  Popery  and  Lutheranism,  and 


OF  rUESinTEllIANISM.  115 

both  Papists  and  Protestants  who  disol)eye(l  were  pun- 
ished together.  Whatever  may  have  l)een  the  nir)tives 
of  tliis  remarkable  prince,  his  work  in  V)reaking  the  con- 
nection of  the  EngHsh  church  with  the  great  hierarchy, 
was,  in  the  prcn  idence  of  God,  made  subservient  to  the 
Reformation,  and  when  he  passed  away  it  liecame 
manifest. 

John  Knox,  who  had  refused  to  go  to  EngLand  (hir- 
ing the  hfetime  of  Henry  VIII. ,  now  found  there  a 
ready  field  for  work.  The  principal  difficulty  in  the 
way  of  Cranmer's  reforms  was  the  lack  of  Protestant 
preachers,  most  of  the  clergy  being  untit  for  the  office, 
or  secretly  attached  to  Rome.  The  Avise  primate  of 
England,  therefore,  determined  to  import  theological 
professors  for  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge from  Germany,  that  they  might  train  up  a  corps 
of  evangelical  men  for  the  work.  In  the  meantime,  it 
was  necessary  to  use  all  the  available  material  at  hand. 
Knox  was  therefore  called  into  service,  and  sent  to 
Berwick,  where  he  labored  very  successfully  during 
two  years.  But  his  courageous  attacks  upon  the  errors 
of  the  church  excited  the  displeasure  of  the  Bishop  of 
Durham,  who  had  him  called  to  account  for  his  preach- 
ing. He  defended  himself  so  well,  however,  as  to  silence 
his  adversaries  and  command  the  respectful  attention 
of  a  considerable  portion  of  the  kingdom.  He  was  soon 
after  appointed  one  of  the  six  chaplains  in  oi'dinary  to 
King  Edward  the  sixth,  the  business  of  these  preachers 
being  to  itinerate  throughout  the  nation,  reforming  the 
church,  as  well  as  officiating  at  court. 

It  is  a  fact  of  interest  to  Episcopalians,  as  well  as 
Presbyterians,  that  during  the  chaphincy  of  John  Knox 


11(>  THE  people's  HISTOIJY 

to  the  king,  lie  was  callecl  upon  for  advice  in  tlie  re- 
vision of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  Through  his 
influence  largely  the  notion  of  the  corporeal  presence 
of  Christ  in  the  sacrament  was  excluded.  An  eminent 
churchman  afterwards  complained  that  "a  runnagate 
Scot  did  take  away  the  adoration  or  worshipping  of 
Christ  in  the  sacrament,  by  whose  procurement  that 
heresy  was  put  into  the  communion  book;  so  much 
prevailed  that  one  man's  authority  at  that  time."  In 
the  following  year  he  was  employed  in  revising  the 
"Articles  of  Religion,"  before  they  were  adopted  by 
parliament.  They  consisted  at  that  time  of  forty -two, 
but  in  156'2  they  were  reduced  to  their  present  number, 
from  which  they  derived  the  title  of  "  The  Thirty-nine 
Articles."  The  salary  of  Knox  as  chaplain  to  King 
Edward  YI.  was  forty  pounds  per  annum ;  but  he  labored 
incessantly,  preaching  nearly  every  day,  and  striving  in 
many  other  ways  to  establish  the  truth  in  the  hearts  of 
the  people.  While  ministering  at  Berwick,  he  had  be- 
come engaged  to  Marjory  Bowes,  a  young  lady  whom 
he  afterwards  married. 

Such  a  radical  reformer  as  Knox  could  l)ut  meet 
\\  ith  oppc^sition  from  those  favorable  to  the  papacy,  and 
he  was  arraigned  by  them  before  the  council.  He  vin- 
dicated his  preaching,  and  gained  favor  at  court  by  his 
defence,  and  Arclil)ishop  C^ranmer  was  directed  to  oHer 
liim  an  important  charge  in  London.  He  declined,  on 
tlie  ground  that  he  did  not  feel  free  to  accept  it  while 
the  condition  of  the  English  diurch  remained  what  it 
was.  Edward  YI.  afterwards,  with  the  concurrence  of 
liis  privy  council,  (^tl'cn'ed  him  a  bishopric;  but  he  re- 
jected it,  giving  as  his  reason  that  the  ofHce  was  desti- 


OF  PRE8P,YTERIANISM.  117 

tnte  of  divine  aiitliority  in  the  Scriptures.  Neverthe- 
less, he  eontimKHl  his  firdnous  and  sneeessful  labors. 
There  was  in  England  at  that  time  a  strong  sentiment 
in  favor  of  Knox's  views  of  doctrine  and  church  govcn'n- 
nient,  which  were  shared  ])y  the  devoted  young  king, 
and  candid  historians  declare  that,  but  for  his  untimelv 
death,  and  the  accession  of  Mary,  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land would  in  all  probability  have  been  reconstructed  on 
the  Presb}i:erian  principle,  as  was  the  case  in  Scotland. 
When  Mary  ascended  the  throne  all  was  changed, 
and  Knox,  after  five  years  in  England,  fled,  along  with 
thc^usands  of  others,  to  Switzerland,  to  escape  the  fate 
of  Hooper,  Latimer,  Eidley  and  Cranmer,  who  were 
burned  at  the  stake  during  the  five  years  of  this  bloody 
reign,  1553-1558.  Our  Eeformer  now  entered  into  a 
warm  friendship  with  Calvin,  which  continued  up  t(^ 
the  death  of  the  latter,  in  1564.  In  Geneva  the  exiled 
Scotchman  addressed  himself  with  ardor  to  stud^'ing 
more  thoroughly  the  theology  and  polity  of  the  Re- 
formed church,  and  likewise  to  the  acquisition  of  the 
Hebrew  language,  though  he  was  now  nearly  fifty  years 
of  age.  Calvin  was  then  in  the  zenith  of  his  power, 
and  Geneva  swarmed  with  Protestant  exiles  from  nearly 
all  parts  of  Europe,  who  had  come  for  protection,  but 
who  had  really  been  sent  hither  by  Providence  to  school, 
that  when  they  returned  to  their  homes  they  might  l)e 
l)etter  prepared  for  the  work  God  had  for  them  to  do. 
He  was  called  to  the  charge  of  a  congregation  of  British 
exiles  at  Frankfort,  Germany,  but  did  not  find  it  com- 
fortable to  remain  there,  by  reason  of  the  ritualistic 
tendencies  of  some  Eomanizing  Anglicans,  and  he  re- 
turned to  Geneva. 


118  THE  people's  histop.y 

111  1555  Knox  made  a  visit  to  Scotland,  and  while 
there  succeeded  in  inducing  the  Protestants  to  give  up 
altogether  their  attendance  upon  the  Romish  services, 
and  to  separate  themselves  formally  from  the  apostate 
church.  At  the  urgent  request  of  the  Earls  Marischal 
and  Glencairn,  he  adddessed  a  letter  to  the  queen- 
regent  in  Ijehalf  of  the  Reformation.  In  this  epistle 
he  wrote,  among  other  vigorous  sentences,  "I  come  in 
the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  affirming  that  the 
religion  which  ye  maintain  is  damnable  idolatrie ;  the 
which  I  offer  myself  to  })rove  by  the  most  evident  tes- 
timonies of  Godde's  Scriptures.  And  in  this  quarrelle, 
I  present  myself  against  all  the  papistes  within  the 
realme,  desiring  none  other  arniore  l)ut  Godde's  holy 
word,  and  the  liberty  of  my  tonge." 

While  occupied  with  these  labors,  he  was  called  to 
the  pastorate  of  the  English  congregation  in  Geneva, 
and  accepted.  He  had  hardly  left  Scotland  when, 
learning  that  he  was  well  out  of  the  way,  the  valiant 
clergy  condemned  his  soul  to  damnation  and  his  l)ody 
to  the  flames,  causing  liiin  to  be  l)uriit  in  effigy  at  the 
town  cross  in  Edinburgh.  The  two  years  spent  with 
his  family  in  Geneva,  in  the  bosom  of  his  beloved  ilock, 
were  the  most  peaceful  of  his  otherwise  stormy  life. 
But  the  time  of  rest  was  soon  over.  A  call  was  In^ought 
to  him  l)y  two  Scottish  gentlemen,  endorsed  hy  the  Earl 
of  Glencairn,  Lords  Lorn,  Erskine  and  James  Stuart,  to 
return  and  take  charge  of  the  Reformation  in  his  native 
land.  Cah-in  and  others  advised  that  "he  could  not 
refuse  the  call  without  showing  himself  rebellious  to 
God  and  unmerciful  to  his  country."  But  a  change  in 
the  face  of  public  affairs  in  Scotland  caused  those  who 


OF  PRESBYTEKIANISM.  IIU 

called  Knox  to  address  liim  another  letter,  wldeli  he 
received  on  his  jonriiej,  beseeching  him  to  postpone 
his  return  to  that  country ;  and  he  sadly  retraced  his 
steps  to  Geneva.  The  rest  of  his  time  on  the  continent 
was  largely  spent  in  writing  letters  of  instruction  and 
encouragement  to  his  friends  in  Scotland,  confirming 
them  ill  the  faith,  and  contributing  not  a  little  to  pre- 
pare the  people  for  the  work  he  was  afterwards  to  do 
among  them.  In  1559  he  left  Geneva  for  the  last  time, 
to  spend  the  remainder  of  his  life,  thirteen  eventful 
years,  in  Scotland.  Through  much  trial  and  persecu- 
tion the  Reformation  had  been  leavening  the  nation, 
and  in  some  places  there  had  been  open  ruptures  with 
Rome.  A  considerable  number  of  nolilemeii  had  also 
adopted  the  Protestant  faith,  and  were  doing  all  in  their 
power  to  defend  it.  When  it  was  known  that  Knox 
had  returned  to  Scotland,  though  he  Avas  under  sentence 
of  death,  there  was  general  consternation  among  the 
papists.  Nor  was  it  without  good  reason,  for  the  re- 
turn of  their  great  leader  infused  courage  into  the  friends 
of  the  Reformation.  "As  for  the  fear  of  danger  that 
may  come  to  me,"  said  Knox,  "let  no  man  be  solicitous ; 
for  my  life  is  in  the  custody  of  him  whose  glory  I  seek. 
I  desire  the  hand  and  weapon  of  no  man  to  defend  me." 
He  preached  a  powerful  sermon  in  St.  Andrews,  which 
resulted  in  the  stripping  of  the  churches  of  images,  the 
destruction  of  the  monasteries,  and  the  establishment 
of  the  Reformed  reKgion  in  that  town.  In  Perth  the 
same  thing  had  been  done,  and  throughout  the  kingdom 
there  was  a  general  uprising  of  the  people.  At  Perth 
what  was  called  "The  Second  Covenant"  was  drawn 
up  and  signed,  by  a  number  of  noble  lords  in  the  name 


120  THE  people's  history 

of  the  whole  congregation,  pledging  themselves  to 
niutnal  support  and  defence  in  the  cause  of  truth. 
These  "lords  of  the  congregation"  resolved  now  to 
abolish  the  idolatrous  rites  of  popery.  They  took  pos- 
session of  Perth,  St.  Andrews  and  Stirling,  and  marched 
to  Edinburgh,  the  cpieen-regent  retiring  with  her  forces 
before  them.  Word  was  sent  officially  to  her  by  the 
lords,  that  they  had  no  intention  of  throwing  off  their 
allegiance,  but  were  only  contending  for  the  puriiica- 
tion  of  religion.  John  Knox  was  chosen  by  the  people 
of  Edinburgh  to  be  their  minister,  and  he  immediately 
entered  upon  his  labors  among  them.  Hostilities  were 
kept  up  until  the  next  year,  when  the  cpieen-regent 
died.  After  this  event,  which  removed  a  great  obstacle 
to  the  establishment  of  the  Eeformed  faith  in  Scotland, 
parliament  was  called  to  settle  the  religious  aftairs  of 
the  kingdom.  The  papacy  was  abolished,  and  Presby- 
terianism  adopted  in  its  stead.  The  first  General  As- 
send)ly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  met  the  same  3'ear, 
1560,  on  tlu^  '20th  day  of  December,  and  consisted  of 
forty  mend)ers,  of  which  nund)er  only  six  were  min- 
isters. 

At  this  Assembly  what  was  called  "  The  First  Book  of 
Discipline,"  drawn  up  by  Knox  and  live  other  ministers, 
was  adopted.  It  applied  the  Presbyterian  ])rinciple  to 
the  government  of  the  congregation.  As  ministers  were 
scarce,  superintendents  or  travelling  preachers  were  ap- 
pointed, each  to  have  charge  of  the  work  in  a  certain 
district.  A  few  extracts  from  this  "First  Buik"  may 
not  prove  uninteresting.  "  It  appertaineth  to  the  pepill, 
and  to  every'several  congregation,  to  elect  their  minister. 
Altogether  this  is  t(^  l)e  avoided,  that  any  man  be  vio- 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  121 

leiitly  intriisecl  or  thrust  upon  any  congregation."  He 
was  to  be  strictly  "  examinated,"  as  to  his  "lyiff  and 
maneris,"  and  "  doctryne  and  knawledge."  In  the  elec- 
tion of  officers  care  was  to  be  taken  "that  every  man 
may  gyif  his  vote  freelie."  The  election  ef  elders  and 
deacons  was  annual,  and  the  kirk  (church)  session  met 
every  week.  In  1581  the  office  of  elder  was  made  for 
life. 

A  splendid  educational  system  was  prepared  b}^  Knox. 
There  were  to  be  parish  schools,  where  grammar  and 
Latin  were  to  be  taught;  colleges  in  every  impoi4;ant 
town;  and  universities  in  Glasgow,  St.  Andrews,  and 
Aberdeen.  This  scheme  was  not  fully  carried  out  at  that 
time.  Knox  believed  in  compulsory  education,  Avhich 
should  be  free  to  the  poor.  "No  fader,  of  what  estait 
and  condition  that  ever  he  be,  may  use  his  children  at 
his  (iwn  fantasie,  especially  in  their  youthheade,  Init 
all  must  be  compelled  to  bring  up  their  children  in 
learnyng  and  virtue." 

In  August,  1561,  not  huig  after  the  second  General 
Assembly,  Mary,  the  young  and  beautiful  cpieen,  arrived 
from  France,  to  begin  her  unfortunate  reign.  She  came 
fully  possessed  with  two  great  ideas  :  one,  to  establish  her 
claim  to  the  English  as  well  as  the  Scottish  crown,  and 
the  other,  to  bring  l)ack  Scotland  into  the  bosom  of  the 
Church  of  Eome.  In  the  first  she  had  to  contend  with 
her  mighty  cousin,  Elizabeth,  and  in  the  other  with  the 
still  mightier  John  Knox.  In  both  she  was  unsuc- 
cessful. She  attempted  to  control  the  Eeformer  by  her 
personal  charms  and  infiuence,  as  she  had  the  Scottish 
lords,  but  she  f(^und  him  utterly  unimpressil^le,  either 
by  flatter}^  or  threats,  and  seems  at  last  to  have  con- 


122  THE  people's  history 

ceived  for  liim  tlie  bitterest  hatred,  mingled,  it  must  lie 
said,  with  respect.  Knox,  after  some  experience  of  her 
ways,  dechired  "If  there  be  not  in  her  a  proud  mind, 
a  crafty  wit,  and  an  indurate  heart  against  God  and 
liis  truth,  my  judgment  faileth  me." 

He  had  a  hard  struggle  to  secure  the  independence 
of  the  Assemblies  of  the  church  against  Queen  Mary 
and  her  able  secretary,  Maitland.  "Take  from  us  the 
liberties  of  Assemblies,  and  take  from  us  the  gopsel," 
said  he.  But  he  so  far  succeeded  tliat  the  queen  was 
obliged  to  content  herself  with  a  compromise,  that  a 
representatiye  of  the  crown  should  haye  a  place  in  the 
meetings.  The  gro^^'th  of  the  church  was  now  yery 
rapid,  in  spite  of  all  difficulties,  and  seyen  years  after 
its  organization,  instead  of  numbering  foi*ty  laymen  and 
six  ministers,  the  General  Assembly  contained  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty -two  ministers. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  conceiye  of  a  more  unsuitable 
queen  for  the  hardy,  and  perhaps  at  that  time  turbulent 
Scotch,  than  was  Mary.  Her  ^^rinciples  totally  opposed 
to  theirs,  she  never  understood  them,  but  fancied  her- 
self persecuted  because  they  contended  manfully  for 
the  truth  and  christian  libei*ty.  Her  life  was  a  failure  ; 
that  of  Knox  a  maryellous  success.  He  has  been  called 
liard  and  severe,  find  he  was;  but  who  cpiarrels  with 
the  oak  for  its  toughness  or  the  granite  for  its  strength? 
He  was  hard,  and  God  made  him  thus,  but  so  were  the 
times ;  and  the  hard  work  he  did  has  come  doAvn  to  us 
as  one  of  the  grandest  legacies  of  the  past  to  the  present 
and  the  future.  Mary  accused  Knox  of  treason,  because 
of  a  circular  letter  of  his  calling  the  lords  together  to 
witness  the  trial  of  some  Protestants  on  a  cei-tain  occa- 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  123 

sion ;  but  when  lie  confronted  her  in  the  midst  of  her 
conneil,  he  put  them  all  to  confusion,  and  threw  the 
qneen  into  tears  of  angry  disappointment  hy  his  mas- 
terly and  successful  defence  of  his  conduct.  They  felt 
themselves  overwhelmed  hy  the  irresistible  power  of 
the  man. 

He  also  projected  by  his  genius  a  new  life  into  the 
people.  As  he  preached  the  gospel  in  thunder  tones 
from  old  St.  Giles  Cathedral  to  the  multitudes  assem- 
l)led  there,  he  imparted  that  knowledge  of  the  truth, 
that  courage,  that  power  of  eternal  life,  which  produced 
the  character  and  piu'pose  which  were  going  to  reform 
Scotland  more  thoroughly  than  any  other  country,  and 
make  it  a  model  and  an  inspiration  to  the  Protestant 
world. 

But  the  mightiest  sun  must  set,  and  his  day  was 
drawing  to  a  close.  James  Melville,  who  was  a  student 
at  St.  Andrews,  writes  a  description  of  him  in  that  city 
the  year  before  he  died.  "Of  all  the  benefits  I  had 
that  year  was  the  coming  of  that  most  notable  prophet 
and  apostle  of  our  nation,  Mr.  John  Knox.  .  .  Mr.  Knc^x 
would  sometimes  come  in  and  repose  him  in  our  college 
yard,  and  call  us  scholars  unto  him  and  bless  us,  and 
exhort  us  to  know  God  and  his  work  in  our  country, 
and  stand  by  the  good  cause.  .  .  .  He  was  very  weak. 
I  saw  him  every  day  go  Avith  a  staff  in  one  hand  and 
and  good  godly  Richard  Ballantine  assisting  him  from 
the  abbey  to  the  parish  church,  and,  by  the  said  Rich- 
ard and  another  servant,  lifted  up  to  the  pulpit,  where 
he  behooved  to  lean  at  his  first  entry ;  but  e're  he  had 
done  with  his  sermon,  he  was  so  active  and  vigorous 
that  he  was  like  to  ding  that  pulpit  into  blads,  and  fly 


124  THE  people's  history 

out  of  it."  After  lie  became  too  weak  from  disease  to 
i^o  to  St.  Giles  Cathedral,  he  would  address  the  con- 
gregation standing  in  the  street,  from  the  Avindow  of  his 
house  in  the  Canongate.  He  had  a  tender  and  faith- 
ful nurse  in  his  young  wife,  Marjory  having  long  ag(^ 
died,  and  he  having  married  Margaret  Stewai-t.  The 
nohilitj  and  w  orth  of  Scotland  Avaited  about  his  house 
to  hear  tidings  of  hope  that  his  life  might  l)e  spared. 
"Go  read,"  said  he  to  his  Avife  in  his  last  hour,  "where 
I  cast  my  first  anchor."  She  knew  to  what  he  referred, 
and  read  the  seventeenth  chapter  of  John's  gospel. 
After  giving  expression  to  some  striking  Avords  of 
triumph  over  sin  and  Satan  and  death,  he  gently  ex- 
pired. 

"  In  this  manner,"  AATote  the  faithful  Ballantine,  "  de- 
parted this  man  of  God,  the  light  of  Scotland  and  the 
church  Avitliin  the  same,  the  mirror  of  godliness,  and 
pattern  and  example  t(^  all  true  ministers  in  puritA'  of 
Hfe,  soundness  of  doctrine,  and  boldness  in  reproving 
Avickednt^ss ;  one  that  cared  not  for  the  favor  of  men, 
liow  givat  so(^ver  they  Avere.  What  dexterity'  in  teach- 
ing, l)oldness  in  reproA^ing,  and  hatred  of  Avickedness 
Avere  in  him,  inA'  ignorant  dullness  is  not  able  t(^  declare, 
Avliicli,  if  I  sliould  labor  to  set  out,  it  Avere  as  one  Avho 
would  light  a  candle  to  enable  men  to  see  tlie  sun." 

His  death  occurred  on  Monday,  the  24tli  of  Novem- 
ber, 1572.  Standing  by  the  grave  into  Avhich  the  body 
of  John  Knox  had  just  b(>en  lowered,  in  the  presence 
of  a  great  multitude  who  had  come  to  his  burial,  the 
Eegent  said,  "Here  lietli  one  avIio  never  feared  the  face 
of  man." 

The  old  churchyard   of  St.  Giles  church   has   l)een 


OF  PRESBYTERIANIHM.  125 

turned  into  h  Imsy  street,  and  nothing  marks  the  spot 
where,  under  clang  of  hoof  and  wheel,  rest  the  ashes  of 
Scotland's  greatest  man,  but  a  small  plate  of  l)rass  in 
the  pavement,  bearing  the  simple  inscription  : 

"I.  K.,  1572." 


CHAPTEE  XYI. 

A  Long  Conflict. 

THE  Cluirch  of  Scotland,  bereft  of  its  great  leader, 
was,  for  a  time,  like  a  ship  witlioiit  a  nidder.  He 
liad  hardly  passed  away  when  reactionary  tendencies 
in  the  direction  of  Episcopacy'  began  to  show  them- 
selves. But  God  had  been  preparing  Andrew  Melville, 
by  a  thorough  training  in  continental  schools,  for  the 
emergency.  This  devoted  and  scholarly  man  assailed 
Episcopacy  with  great  poAver,  as  not  only  inexpedient, 
bnt  utterly  opposed  to  the  church  government  of  the 
Scriptures.  The  aristocracy,  as  was  natural,  generally 
favored  it,  from  an  instinctive  self-interest,  feeling  that 
it  was  more  in  sympathy  with  their  privileges.  The 
monarchical  principle  and  the  republican  could  never 
atfiliate.  Under  the  influence  of  Melville  in  1580,  the 
General  Assembly  declared  "the  pretended  office  of  a 
bishop  to  be  unlawful,  having  neither  foundation  nor 
warrant  in  the  AVord  of  God."  The  next  year,  1581,  a 
complete  law  book  for  the  church,  called  "  The  Second 
Book  of  Discipline,"  was  prepared  under  Melville's  in- 
spiration, which  in  1592  became  the  basis  of  the  act  of 
parliament  establishing  Presbyterianism  ;is  the  religion 
of  the  realm.  This  did  not  l)ring  settled  peace,  by  any 
means ;  for  Mary's  son,  James  VI.  of  Scotland  and  I. 
of  England,  uniting  the  sovereign  power  of  both  king- 
126 


THE  TEOrLE  S  HISTOIIY  OF  injESBYTElJIANISM.         127 

doms  ill  liiiiiself,  Avas  never  a  Presbyterian.  It  is  diffi- 
eult  for  a  king  to  he  repnl)liean  in  liis  religion,  espe- 
cially Avlien  the  cliureli  and  the  state  are  nnited.  James, 
from  political  and  other  motives,  endeavored  constantly 
to  make  inroads  upon  Piesl)ytei'ianism  in  Scotland,  and 
bring  the  church  in  that  country  into  uniformity  with 
that  of  England.  A  number  of  mediaeval  festivals  were 
imposed  upon  the  Scotch,  and  their  estates  were  re- 
stored to  the  bishops.  His  son,  Charles  L,  was  even 
more  zealous,  but  less  wise,  than  his  father,  and  pressed 
his  reactionary  measures  so  far  as  to  lu'iiig  about  a  revo- 
lution which  deprived  him  of  his  throne  and  his  life. 
One  of  the  most  eminent  authorities  of  the  present  day 
says:  "There  is  no  doubt  that  the  introduction,  at  the 
suggestion  of  Archbishop  Laud,  of  the  Book  of  Canons 
and  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  was  the  immediate 
occasion  of  the  Enghsli  RebeUion."  {Schaf-Herzog 
Encyclo2)(P(li((.) 

The  Dean  of  Edinburgh,  acting  under  orders  fi'om 
King  Charles,  attempted  to  introduce  the  liturgy  in  St. 
Giles's,  in  the  presence  of  the  privy  council  and  magis- 
trates and  a  large  assembh^  of  the  people,  on  Sunday, 
July  23,  1637.  But  it  was  unsuccessful.  According  to 
the  old  story,  Jenny  Geddes,  an  herb-woman,  hearing 
the  archbishop  call  on  the  dean  to  read  the  "  collect 
for  the  day,"  misunderstood  the  word,  l)ut  not  the  act, 
and  cried  out,  "The  deil  gi'e  ye  the  cohc!  Villaine, 
dost  thou  say  mass  at  my  lug?"  (ear).  With  that  she 
hurled  the  stool  whereon  she  had  been  sitting  at  the 
head  of  the  Dean.  This  was  the  signal  ioY  an  uprising 
of  the  congregation,  and  the  peoj^le  shouted  through 
the  streets,  "A  pope,  a  pope!     Antichrist!     The  sword 


128  THE  people'r  history 

of  the  Lord  and  of  Gideon  !"  This  outburst  of  popnhir 
indignatic^n  was  not  confined  t(^  Edinburgh,  hut  there 
was  such  violent  opposition  manifested  tliroupjhout  th* 
kiniL;(h)Ui  that  the  project  was  ahan(h)ned  l)y  the  chn'«;y. 
Not  so  with  Charles,  who  raised  an  army  to  force  E])is- 
c(^pacy  upon  Scotland,  and  hej^an  a  f(^(^lish  conflict  which 
ended  in  his  own  destruction  and  the  establishment  of  n 
new  government  in  England,  with  Cromwell  at  its  head. 
Stanley  says,  "  The  stool"  (now  in  the  Museum  of  Edin- 
burgh), "which  Avas  on  that  occasion  flung  at  the  head 
of  the  Dean  of  Edinburgh,  extinguished  the  English 
Liturgy  entirely  in  Scotland,  for  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, to  a  great  extent  even  to  the  nineteenth,  and  gave 
to  the  civil  war  in  England  an  impulse  which  c^nlv  end(Ml 
in  the  overthrow  of  the  church  and  the  monarchy." 

Among  the  prominent  actors  in  the  events  of  those 
times  were  "The  CVivenanters."  John  Craig,  a  chap- 
lain <^f  James  TL,  had  written,  in  1580,  a  document 
called  "  The  King's  Confession,"  because  signed  by  his 
royal  master,  but  which  was  known  afterwards  as  "The 
National  Covenant,"  and  was  subscribed  by  persons  of 
all  ranks.  It  was  a  pledge  of  faithfidness  to  the  Re- 
formed religion  in  Scotland.  It  l)ecanie  a  very  impor- 
tant factor  in  the  events  of  subsequent  years.  During 
the  struggle  which  followed,  Alexander  Henderson, 
after  Knox  the  Scottish  ecclesiastic  most  honored  for 
his  tah^nts,  statesmanship  and  patriotism,  prepared  a 
"bond,"  and  AVarristoii,  a  "legal  warrant,"  adapting 
the  "National  Covenant"  to  the  exigencies  of  that  crisis. 
It  pledged  the  subscribers  "to  adhere  to  and  defend 
the  true  religion,  and  forbear  the  practice  of  all  inno- 
vations already  introduced  into  the  worship  of  God, 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  129 

and  to  labor  by  all  means  lawful  to  recover  the  purity 
and  liberty  of  the  gospel  as  it  was  professed  and  es- 
tablished before  the  aforesaid  innovations."  Hender- 
son delivered  a  powerful  sermon  in  Greyfriars  church, 
Edinburgh,  on  February  28,  1638,  after  Avhich  it  was 
signed  in  the  churchyard,  tombstones  serving  for  writing- 
tables,  by  thousands  of  persons,  some  of  whom,  it  is 
said,  drew  blood  from  their  arms  to  use  instead  of  ink. 
It  cost  many  of  them  the  blood  of  their  hearts  eventu- 
all}^  Copies  of  the  covenant  were  distributed  through- 
out Scotland,  and  signed  by  great  numbers  of  the  best 
people  in  the  land.  On  that  memorable  day,  in  old 
Greyfriars  churchyard,  Henderson  said  the  people  of- 
fered themselves  like  dewdrops  in  the  morning  for  the 
service  of  lieaven,  as  they  swore  allegiance  to  the 
King  of  kings.  The  covenanters  at  last  triumphed, 
and  in  1639  the  "Barrier  Act"  was  passed  by  parlia- 
ment, providing  that  no  change  should  thereafter  be 
made  in  the  laws  of  the  church  without  the  sanction  of 
the  Assemblies  of  the  church. 

The  following  is  a  recent  testimony  to  the  worth  of 
the  coA^enanters,  from  the  pen  of  the  Rev.  Charles 
Spurgeon,  one  of  the  broadest,  greatest  men  of  the 
nineteenth  century : 

"  In  my  bedroom  I  have  hung  up  the  picture  of  an 
old  covenanter.  He  sits  in  a  wild  glen  with  his  Bible 
open  l)efore  him  on  a  huge  stone.  He  leans  on  his 
great  l^roadsword,  and  his  horse  stands  quietly  at  his 
side.  Evidently  he  smelleth  the  battle  afar  off,  and  is 
preparing  for  it  hj  drinking  in  some  mighty  promise. 
As  you  look  into  the  old  man's  face  you  can  almost 
hear  him  saying  to  himself,  '  For  the  crown  of  Christ 


130  THE  people's  history 

and  the  covenant  I  would  gladly  lay  down  my  life  this 
day.'  They  did  lay  down  their  lives,  too,  right  ghn'i- 
onsly,  and  Scotland  owes  to  her  covenanting  fathers  far 
more  than  she  knows.  It  was  a  grand  day  that  in 
which  they  spread  the  solemn  league  and  the  covenant 
upon  the  tombstones  of  the  old  kirkyard  in  Ediiihurgh, 
and  all  sorts  of  men  came  forward  to  set  their  names  to 
it.  Glorious  was  that  roll  of  worthies.  There  were  the 
lords  of  the  covenant  and  the  common  men  of  the  cov- 
enant; and  some  pricked  a  vein  and  dipped  the  pen 
into  their  blood,  that  they  might  Avrite  their  names  with 
the  very  fluid  of  their  hearts.  All  over  England  also 
there  were  men  who  entered  into  a  like  solemn  league 
and  covenant,  and  met  together  to  worship  God  accord- 
ing to  their  light,  and  not  according  to  human  order- 
books.  They  were  resolved  upon  this  one  thing,  that 
Rome  should  not  come  back  to  place  and  power  while 
they  could  lift  a  hand  against  her ;  neither  should  any 
other  power  in  tlirone  or  parliament  prevent  the  free 
exercise  of  their  consciences  for  Christ's  cause  and  cov- 
enant." 

Not  many  years  after  this  the  war  between  Charles  I. 
and  his  parliament  began,  bringing  into  eminence  Oliver 
Cromwell,  whom  it  required  centuries  for  his  country- 
men to  discover,  under  the  influence  of  Macaulay  and 
Thomas  Carlyle,  to  be  the  greatest  of  all  Englishmen, 
the  foremost  man  of  his  age,  and  one  who  deserves  to 
be  honored  through  all  time.  AVliile  he  ruled  England 
his  country  was  respected  by  all  the  powers  of  Europe. 
The  next  year  after  Charles  I.  fled  from  Whitehall,  Lon- 
don, to  return  no  more  until  his  execution,  while  C^rom- 
well  was  rising  among  his  compatriots  as  their  leader,  a 


OF  PllESBYTEKIANISM.  131 

great  gathering  of  ministers  and  elders  from  hoth  king- 
doms was  called  to  meet  in  AVestminster  Al)l3ey.  It  has 
become  historic  nnder  the  name  of  "  The  Westminster 
Assembly."  It  sat  from  1643  to  1649,  and  prepared 
the  noblest  confession  of  faith  ever  given  to  the  world. 
The  English  divines  had  already  met,  and  now  requested 
the  assistance  of  commissioners  from  the  Church  of 
Scotland.  Another  celebrated  declaration,  also  called  a 
"  Covenant,"  or  "  The  Solemn  League  and  Covenant," 
Avas  drawn  np  by  Alexander  Henderson,  in  conference 
with  English  commissioners  to  Edinburgh.  It  was 
adopted  by  the  General  Assembly  in  that  city  on  the 
17th  day  of  August,  1643,  with  emotions  of  the  deepest 
solemnity,  sent  up  to  London,  and  there  accepted  and 
subscribed  by  the  English  Parliament  and  the  West- 
minster Assembly. 

"  The  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  bound  the  united 
kingdoms  to  endeavor  the  preservation  of  the  reformed 
religion  in  the  Church  of  Scotland,  in  doctrine,  worship, 
discipline,  and  government,  and  the  reformation  of  reli- 
gion in  the  kingdoms  of  England  and  Ireland,  accord- 
ing to  the  Word  of  God  and  the  example  of  the  best- 
reformed  churches, — the  extirpation  of  popery  and 
prelacy, — the  defence  of  the  king's  person,  authority, 
and  honor, — and  the  preservation  and  defence  of  the 
true  religion  and  lil^erties  of  the  kingdom  in  peace  and 
unity." 

The  object  of  this  League  was  to  secure  uniformity 
in  the  religious  worship  of  the  two  countries,  and  the 
Westminster  Assembly  was  charged  with  preparing  a  doc- 
trinal basis  for  the  accomplishment  of  this  end,  a  Book 
of  Discipline  and  a  Directory  for  Worship.      Among 


132  THE  people's  history 

the  cominissiouers,  ministers  and  elders,  from  Scotland 
Avere  three  remarkable  divines,  Alexander  Henderson, 
Samuel  Rutherford,  and  George  Gillespie.  The  last 
named  was  the  youngest  member  of  the  Assembly,  and 
it  is  said  that  when  they  were  about  to  attempt  an 
answer  to  the  question,  "What  is  God?"  they  called 
on  him  to  pray,  and  that  the  introduction  to  his  prayer 
Avas  taken  as  the  definition,  w^hich  is  now  well  known  as 
a  part  of  the  Shorter  Catechism.  The  Assembly  was 
called  l)y  parliament,  and  consisted  of  Episcopalians, 
Independents,  and  Presbyterians.  The  Episcopal  di- 
vines declined  to  act ;  so  the  work  was  left  to  the  two 
latter.  The  Independents  Avere  a  small  minority,  yet 
they  gave  a  deal  of  trouble  in  the  progress  of  the  meet- 
ing. Before  the  arrival  of  the  Scottish  commissioners, 
parliament  and  the  Westminster  Assembly  had  resolved 
upon  the  abolition  of  prelacy  in  the  Church  of  England, 
though  Avhat  form  of  church  gOA^ernment  should  be 
adopted  in  its  place  Avas  an  open  question.  The  Eng- 
lish Presbyterians,  not  having  been  so  Avell  trained  in 
Presbyterian  polity,  relied  mainly  upon  the  Scottish 
divines  for  the  explanation  and  defence  of  that  system 
of  church  government.  They  Avere  singularly  Avell 
(jualitied  for  their  Avork. 

The  first  struggle  in  the  Assembly  Avas  Avitli  the  Eras- 
tians,  Avlio  believed  that  the  church  should  be  under  the 
authority  of  the  state.  The  Preslnterians  opposed  it, 
and  ofi'ered  a  statement  for  adoption,  to  the  efi'ect  that 
the  church  is  an  independent  institution  under  Christ, 
its  Head  and  King.  They  carried  their  point  in  the 
Assembly,  but  parliament  refused  to  enact  the  proposi- 
tion.    The  Independents  contended  against  the  Presby- 


OF  PEESBYTERIANISM.  133 

terians,  but  failing  to  maintain  their  own  views  in  tlie 
Assembly,  they  labored  with  the  members  of  parliament 
and  officers  in  the  army,  at  the  same  time  causing  vexa- 
tious delays  by  useless  discussion.  But  the  Assembly 
was  overwhelmingly  Presbyterian,  and  that  great  system 
eventually  carried  the  day. 

The  opening  sermon  was  by  Dr.  Twisse,  from  John 
xiv.  18,  "I  will  not  leave  you  comfortless;  I  will  come 
to  you."    The  Assembly  continued  its  work  until  1649,  a 
period  of  nearly  six  years.     When  they  submitted  tlie 
Confession  of  Faith  to  parKament,  it  was  returned  to  them 
with  the  order  that  they  add,  at  the  bottom  of  the  pages, 
the  texts  from  Scripture  to  prove  all  the  doctrines  set 
forth  in  the  book.     They  were  familiar  with  the  various 
Eeformed  Confessions  which  had  been  adopted  by  other 
Protestant  churches  of  Europe,  and  this  knowledge  was 
of  great  help  to  them  in  their  work.     The  results  of  this 
Westminster  Assembly's  labors  have  been  of  inestimable 
value  in  moulding  the  thought  and  character  of  milHons 
of  people,  Imt  uniformity  of  faith  and  worship  was  not 
secured  in  Great  Britain.     The  Confession  of  Faith, 
Catechisms,  Discipline,  and  Directory  for  Worship,  were 
adopted  only  by  Scotland  at  that  time,  though  they  have 
since  become  the  doctrinal  basis  of  nearly  all  Enghsh- 
speaking  Presbyterian  churches  throughout  the  world. ^ 
The  constitution  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  was  now 
well  elaborated,  both  as  to  doctrine  and  government ; 
but  just  before  it,  in  the  future,  aw^aited  another  terri- 
ble ordeal  of  persecution.     The  execution  of  Charles  I., 
at  Whitehall,  was  sharply  condemned  in  Scotland,  be- 

^  For  a  full  account  of  this  famous  body,  see  Hetherington's  "  His- 
tory of  the  Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines." 


134  THE  people's  history 

cause  the  Scotch,  while  contending  for  Hl)erty  to  wor- 
ship God,  were  truly  loyal  to  the  goyernment.  This 
threw  them  into  antagonism  with  Cromwell.  "Prince 
Charlie  "  took  refuge  among  them.  They  proclaimed  him 
king,  with  the  title  of  Charles  II.,  and  he  subscribed  the 
"  KSolemn  League  and  Coyenant,"thus  becoming  a  "  Coy- 
enanter."  This  act  proyed  afterwards  to  haye  been  one 
of  hypocrisy ;  and  when  he  was  restored  t(^  the  goyern- 
ment of  the  two  kingdoms,  in  1660,  a  bitter  persecu- 
tion began,  which  lasted  twenty-eight  years,  or  until 
the  Reyolution,  by  which  William  and  Mary  acceded 
to  the  throne.  In  1661  Episcopacy  was  re-established 
in  Scotland.  The  Coyenants  were  denounced,  and  all 
who  adhered  to  them  declared  to  be  traitors.  The 
Marquis  of  Argyle  Ayas  beheaded  and  James  Guthrie 
hanged  the  same  year,  and  those  scenes  began  to  be 
enacted  throughout  Scotland  which  haye  eyer  since 
been  regarded  as  affording  at  once  exhibitions  of  th(^ 
most  cruel  tyranny  and  bigotry,  and  of  the  nol)lest 
heroism  in  deyotion  to  religious  conyictions.  Tliose 
were  the  days  of  "the  Coyenanters,"  the  annals  of 
Ayhose  wrongs  should  bring  a  glow  of  righteous  indig- 
nation to  eyery  true  heart  which  reads  them.  Diocesan 
coiu-ts  were  set  up,  and  no  minister  was  allowed  to  ex- 
ercise his  office  except  by  their  consent.  The  Earl  of 
Lauderdale  was  sent  to  the  west  country  to  enforce 
this  system ;  but  fcnir  hundred  ministers  resigned  their 
charges  rather  than  submit  to  what  was  in  direct  yiola- 
tion  of  their  c(msciences  and  their  coyenant.  They 
were  then  forbidden  to  hold  seryices,  under  penalty  of 
death.  Tliose  who  attended  such  seryices  were  pun- 
ished by  lines  and  imprisonment.     Bodies  of  troops 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  135 

scoured  the  counhy,  under  such  men  as  Sir  James 
Turner  and  Graham  of  Claverliouse,  hated  names  in 
Scottish  history,  to  break  up  conventicles  or  out-door 
assembHes  for  worship,  and  to  kill  the  saints  of  God. 
The  Duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II.,  made  himself 
especially  odious  to  the  people,  both  before  and  after 
his  coronation,  in  1686.  The  acts  of  government  in 
those  terrible  times  Avere  such  as  would  disgrace  any 
people,  however  depraved,  and  could  hardly  be  sur- 
passed in  barbarity  by  the  deeds  of  untaught  savages. 
During  those  twenty-eight  years  eighteen  thousand 
persons  were  put  to  death.  The  sod  of  Scotland  was 
crimsoned  with  the  blood  of  its  noblest  and  best.  An- 
other Marquis  of  Argyle,  son  of  the  former,  was  be- 
headed in  Edinburgh,  before  St.  Giles  Cathedral.  Men 
and  Avomen  throughout  the  kingdom  were  shot,  put  to 
the  sword,  and  tied  to  stakes  fastened  in  the  edge  of 
the  sea,  that  a  slow  tide  might  torture  them  before  death 
relieved  their  sufferings.  One  of  the  persecutors.  Bishop 
Sharp,  was  killed  in  tlie  moors  near  St.  Andrews  by  a 
few  men  wTought  to  madness  by  his  cruelties.  A  rising 
of  the  people  took  place  in  Galloway  in  1666,  Imt  it  re- 
sulted in  defeat  near  Edinl)urgli.  In  another  conflict 
the  Covenanters  defeated  Claverliouse ;  but  at  the  fa- 
mous battle  of  Bothwell  Bridge,  in  1679,  they  were 
vanquished,  and  the  blue  banner,  inscribed  with  "  Christ 
OUR  King  and  Covenant,"  was  laid  in  the  dust. 

At  Sanquhar,  a  lieautiful  hamlet  among  the  hills  of 
Dumfriesshire,  was  published,  in  1680,  a  declaration 
disowning  Charles  IL  as  king,  in  consequence  of  his 
cruel  conduct,  and  his  violation  of  his  oath  as  well  as 
the  laws  of  the  country.     One  of  the  prominent  authors 


136  THE  people's  history 

of  this  "  Sanquhar  declaration,"  was  Eichard  Cameron, 
who  gave  his  name  to  the  party  call  "  Cameronians," 
or  Eeformed  Presbyterians.  At  Airdmoss  they  met  the 
royal  troops,  and  were  defeated,  Cameron  himself  being 
killed.  Another  "declaration"  was  made  in  the  same 
town  hye  years  afterwards.  On  a  granite  shaft  in 
Sanquhar  may  be  seen  at  this  day  the  following  impres- 
siye  and  profoundly  suggestiye  inscription : 

' '  In  commemokation  of 

The  two  famous  Sanquhar  Declarations,  irhich  were  puUishedon  this  spot, 
where  stood  the  ancient  cross  of  the  Burgh. 

The  one  by  the  Eev,  Richard  Cameeon,  on  June  22,  1680  ; 

The  other  by  the  Eev.  James  Eenwick,  on  the  25tli  of  jNIay,  1(!85, 

The  Killing  Time. 

If  5'ou  would  know  the  nature  of  their  crime, 
Then  read  the  story  of  their  time. " 

In  old  Greyfriars'  churchyard,  Edinl)urgh.  conye- 
niently  near  the  Grassmarket,  where  many  martyrs 
perished,  is  another  remarkable  inscription  similar  to 
this.  The  fortunate  trayeller  Avhose  feet  press  the 
sacred  soil  of  this  place  where  the  coyenant  was  signed, 
undei'  the  inspiration  of  the  innnortal  Henderson,  en- 
(juires  for  the  "Martyrs'  Monument."  He  is  led  to  an 
obscure  corner,  where,  in  ancient  times,  was  the  hole 
int(^  which  the  bodies  of  executed  criminals  were  thrown, 
and  is  confronted  l)y  a  modest  stone  rising  from  among 
the  iyies  which  embrace  the  spot.  C'old  is  indeed  the 
man  who  can  stand  there  and  read,  without  a  quickened 
soul,  these  quaint  and  pregnant  sentences : 

' '  Halt,  passenger,  take  heed  !     What  do  you  see  ? 
This  tomb  doth  show  for  what  some  men  did  die. 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  137 

Here  lies  interred  the  dust  of  those  who  stood 

'Gainst  perjury,  resisting  unto  blood, 

Adhering  to  the  covenants  and  laws. 

Establishing  the  same,  which  was  the  cause 

Their  lives  were  sacrificed  unto  the  lust 

Of  prelatists  abjured.     Though  here  their  dast 

Lies  mixed  with  murderers  and  other  crew. 

Whom  justice  justly  did  to  death  pursue; 

But  as  for  them,  no  cause  was  to  be  found. 

Constant  and  steadfast,  zealous  witnessing 

For  the  prerogatives  of  Christ  their  king ; 

Which  truths  were  sealed  by  famous  Guthrie's  head, 

And  all  along  to  Mr.  Eenmck's  blood ; 

They  did  endure  the  wrath  of  enemies. 

Reproaches,  torments,  deaths,  and  injuries ; 

But  yet  they're  those  who  from  such  troubles  came. 

And  now  triumph  in  glory  with  the  Lamb." 

"From  May  27th,  1661,  that  the  most  noble  Marqais  of  Argyle  was 
beheaded,  to  the  17th  of  February,  1688,  that  Mr.  James  Ren-^'ick  suf- 
fered, were,  one  way  or  other,  murdered  or  destroyed,  for  the  same 
cause,  about  eighteen  thousand ;  of  whom  were  execute  at  Edinburgh, 
about  an  hundred,  of  noblemen,  gentlemen,  ministers,  and  others;  no- 
ble martyrs  for  Jesus  Chkist.     The  most  of  them  lie  here." 

"For  a  particular  account  of  the  cause  and  manner  of  their  suffer- 
ings see  the  Cloud  of  Witnesses,  Criukshank's,  and  Defoe's  Histories. " 

"Rev.  vi.  9,  10,  11.     Rev.  vii.  14." 

Had  the  Covenanters  been  wholly  crushed,  reHgious 
liberty  would  have  well-nigh  perished  in  Great  Britain ; 
but  they  conquered,  though  they  died.  The  time  of 
deliverance  was  coming;  the  edict  had  gone  forth  in 
Heaven.  In  the  year  1688  James  II.  was  driven  from 
his  throne,  and  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  and  Mary 
acceded  to  the  royal  prerogative.  Presbyterianisin  was 
then  again  established  by  law  in  Scotland,  though  it 
was  declared  that  there  should  be  no  persecution  for 
religious  opinion,  but  that  there  should  be  toleration  for 


138  THE  PEOrLE's  HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIANISM. 

all.  So  ended  the  persecutions  in  Scotland.  God  having 
purified  his  people  in  the  fire,  developing  the  finest 
system  of  doctrine  and  church  government  ever  wrought 
out  from  the  days  of  the  apostles  up  to  that  time,  now 
led  them  into  the  green  pastures  of  peace. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

"My  Kingdom  is  not  of  this  World." — The  Final 
Establishment  of  this  Principle  in  Scotland. 

A  THOUGHTFUL  review  of  all  that  lias  gone  be- 
fore will  suggest  to  the  reader  that  the  funda- 
mental cause  of  nearly  all  persecutions  in  the  ages  of 
history  has  been  the  entanglement  of  the  aftairs  of 
church  and  state.  These  are  two  distinct  institutions, 
and,  in  most  Avays,  independent  of  one  another.  The 
state  can  only  deal  with  the  church  by  way  of  protect- 
ing its  rights  of  propei-ty  or  of  person,  as  it  would  any 
merely  human  organization.  It  has  no  authority  to  say 
what  the  church  shall  teach,  nor  what  any  man  shall 
believe.  It  can  only  punish  men  for  the  commission  of 
crime.  Nor  can  the  church  intrude  into  the  domain  of 
the  state.  It  may  humbly  petition  the  state  in  cases 
extraordinary,  but  its  dealings  with  civil  government 
are  usually  through  the  individual,  by  preaching  "the 
gospel  to  every  creature,"  and  endeavoring  to  make 
men  good  citizens,  by  making  them  good  Christians. 
The  utmost  punishment  any  church  court  may  right- 
fully inflict  is  excommunication.  To  take  a  man's  pro- 
perty, his  liberty,  or  his  life,  for  his  opinions  or  his  con- 
duct, however  bad,  is  not  within  the  scope  of  its  charter, 
given  by  her  Great  Head,  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 
139 


140  THE  people's  histoky 

The  lust  for  power  first  corrupted  tlie  church  and 
huilt  up  the  papacy.  This  same  hist  demanded  control 
of  the  civil  governments,  and,  in  many  cases,  succeeded 
in  using  it  for  the  punishment  of  heretics.  Having  re- 
ceived the  church  into  this  copartnership,  the  state  often 
turned  upon  the  church  and  f(^rced  it  to  act  contrary 
to  the  will  of  its  divine  Lord.  The  church  cannot  have 
two  kings  and  l)e  at  peace,  and  highly  significant  was 
the  inscription  on  the  Covenanters'  banner,  "  Christ  our 
King  and  Covenant." 

The  Church  of  the  Reformation  did  not  grasp  this 
great  principle  at  once.  It  held  that  the  state  must 
indeed  leave  the  church  free,  hut  should  at  the  same 
time  support  it.  Along  this  line  the  struggles  of  ages 
were  carried  on,  until  it  began  to  dawn  upon  the  con- 
sci(nisness  of  the  church  that  in  the  world  there  are 
two  distinct  governments— the  civil,  with  its  temporal 
laws  and  i)enalties,  and  the  church,  Avith  its  spiritual 
laws  and  penalties.  The  great  questions  of  theology, 
or  the  being  of  God,  were  settled,  in  human  science, 
in  the  (^arly  centuries  after  the  apostles ;  next  came  those 
of  Anthropology,  or  the  nature  of  man,  which  were  tlie 
subject  of  the  Augustinian  and  Pelagian  controversy,  it 
being  finally  acknowledged  that  human  nature  is  essen- 
tially sinf\il;  then  followed  the  great  controversy  of  the 
Reformation  period,  in  which  Soteriology,  how  men  are 
saved,  was  elaborated,  in  the  historic  doctrine  of  justi- 
fication by  faith.  Ecclesiology,  or  tlu^  nature  of  the 
church,  was  the  problem  then  laid  doAvn  for  men  to 
master.  It  has  caused  a  mighty  strife,  but  the  sky 
is  clearing  again,  and  the  church  is  l)ecoming  mani- 
fest as  a  spiritual  commonwealth.     May  it  not  stand 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  141 

before  the  world  at  last,  disentangled  from  all  un- 
holy alliances,  the  Bride  of  Christ,  "comely  as  Jeru- 
salem?" 

When  William  III.  became  king  of  England,  in  1088, 
there  Ayas  a  radical  reyolution,  because  tlie  peiyplen  rep- 
resentatives 2ylaced  Jihn  o?i  the  throne,  he  being  elected  to 
the  office  by  parliament.  The  "divine  right  of  kings" 
died  cruelly  indeed,  but  died  when  parhament  put 
Charles  I.  to  death.  And  the  logic  of  that  event 
was,  if  we  can  destroy  a  king,  we  can  make  one.  In 
other  words,  the  representatives  of  the  people  ruled, 
and  William  was  in  sympathy  with  that  great  principle, 
so  the  government  was  established  on  a  new  basis,  that 
of  the  consent  of  the  people,  and  not  the  alleged 
"divine  right"  of  a  king.  From  that  day  to  this  the 
British  sovereigns  have  held  their  power  under  the 
final  consent  of  the  governed.  As  long  as  they  have 
such  noble  monarchs  as  her  Koyal  Majesty  Victoria, 
whom  they  justly  love  and  obey,  all  goes  well,  and  they 
are  happy ;  but  the  days  have  passed  when  they  would 
abide  such  tyrannies  as  those  of  the  Stuarts  and  man}' 
who  went  before.  This  is  the  drift  of  history  in  civil 
governments ;  and  in  ecclesiastical  the  tide  is  strongly 
towards  the  entire  separation  of  church  and  state.  The 
sequel  to  the  history  of  Presbyterianism  in  Scotland 
will  show  this. 

On  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary  to  the  throne, 
and  the  restoration  of  Presbyterianism  in  Scotland,  the 
people  of  that  countr}^  at  once,  as  a  general  thing,  re- 
turned to  their  old  faith.  There  is  one  thing,  however, 
which  should  not  fail  to  be  noted :  there  was  no  revenge 
taken  upon  their  persecutors  by  those  who  had  endured 


142  THE  people's  history 

so  many  and  so  great  cruelties.     Let  this  be  mentioned 
to  tlieir  everlasting  honor. 

"  Patronage"  was  the  next  great  question  that  stirred 
the  Church  of  Scotland.  The  custom  of  wealthy  or 
nohle  laymen  haying  the  power  of  nominating  pastors 
originated  in  the  early  ages,  probably  in  cases  where 
beneyolent  persons  built  or  endowed  churches,  this 
seeming  to  give  them  a  soi*t  of  claim  to  tlieir  manage- 
ment. It  prevailed  oyer  a  large  part  of  the  church  of 
Eur(^pe  in  early  times.  AVlien  the  Reformation  was  in- 
troduced into  Scotland  this  custom  generally  remained, 
in  some  cases  the  result  being  that  the  patron  of  a 
Protestant  church  was  a  Roman  Catholic.  It  is  easy 
to  see  that  this  could  but  produce  serious  complica- 
tions, because  it  was  destructive  to  the  spiritual  inde- 
pendence of  the  church.  The  j^atronage  sometimes  be- 
longed to  a  person,  and  descended  from  father  to  son, 
and  sometimes  to  a  tract  of  land.  In  the  latter  case, 
whoever  held  the  property  possessed  the  right  of  pa- 
tronage. It  was  abolished  in  Scotland  in  1(349,  but  re- 
established in  1660.  After  the  Revolution  it  was  again 
al)olished,  in  1690,  a  pecuniary  compensation  being 
yot(Hl  to  the  patrons.  Under  Queen  Anne,  in  1712,  it 
was  suddenly  restored,  and  the  patrons  did  not  pay 
l)ack  the  compensation  they  had  received  in  1()90.  The 
opposition  to  patronage  had  continued  t(^  grow,  and 
now  became  intensilied.  In  1707  the  complete  union 
of  the  two  countries  was  consummated,  and  the  Scot- 
tish parliament  adjourned  to  meet  no  more.  But  one 
of  the  declarations  upon  which  this  union  was  based 
was  an  act  establishing  the  C^liurch  of  Scotland  in  the 
enjoyment  of  its  riglits  and  privileges.     It  was  stipu- 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  143 

lated  that  the  Confession  of  Faith  and  Presbyterian 
church  government  should  "  continue  without  any 
alteration  to  the  people  of  this  land  in  all  succeeding 
generations ; "  also  "  that  this  act  of  security,  vnth  the 
ESTABLISHMENT  THEREIN  CONTAINED,  shall  he  held  a  lid  ob- 
served in  all  time  coining  as  a  fundamental  and  essen- 
tial CONDITION  OF  ANY  TREATY  OF  UNION  to  he  Concluded 
hetwlM    the   two   kingdoms,   without   any   alteration 

THEREOF,  OR  DEROGATION  THERETO,  IN  ANY  SORT  FOREVER." 

From  this  time  forward  there  was,  at  various  times, 
more  or  less  trouble  growing  out  of  the  imperfectly  de- 
veloped spiritual  independence  of  the  church.  The 
fundamental  principles  of  its  existence  led  it  to  feel  re- 
sponsible only  to  Christ  as  its  Head,  but  its  entangle- 
ment with  the  civil  power  caused  much  friction.  The 
patronage  act  was  gradually  accepted,  and,  in  1731,  the 
right  was  given  "to  heritors  and  elders"  by  the  General 
Assembly  "to  elect  and  call"  pastors  to  churches.  This 
was  made  law  without  consulting  the  Presbyteries,  and 
it  caused  the  first  great  secession  from  the  Church  of 
Scotland.  Great  crises  bring  great  men.  The  great 
man  of  this  occasion  was  Ebenezer  Erskine.  He  de- 
nounced the  action  of  the  Assembly  in  sermons  preached 
at  Perth  and  Stirling,  and  was  rebuked  for  it  by  the 
Synod.  On  his  appealing  to  the  General  Assembly  the 
rebuke  was  approved.  He  and  three  others  were  tem- 
porarily deposed;  so,  on  the  6th  of  December,  1733, 
they  organized  the  "Associate  Presbytery."  In  1737 
they  largely  increased  in  numbers,  and  published  their 
"  Declaration  and  Testimony."  They  were  finally  de- 
posed on  May  15,  1740,  and  became  the  "Secession 
Church."     Their  ground  of  objection  was  not  patronage 


144  THE  people's  history 

alone,  but  also  to  cei-tain  doctrinal  tendencies  of  a  seri- 
ous nature  in  the  church  at  that  time.  By  1747  the 
Secession  Church  had  increased  to  foi*ty-live  congrega- 
tions. But  at  that  date  an  unhappy  controversy  oc- 
curred about  the  lawfulness  of  taking  the  oath  adminis- 
tered to  burgesses  in  the  larger  cities,  which  was  by 
some  understood  as  binding  those  who  took  it  to  sup- 
port the  Established  Church,  but  by  others  as  meaning 
only  the  Protestant  religion.  Thus  arose  the  two  sects 
of  "Burghers"  and  the  General  Associate  Synod,  other- 
vdse  called  the  "  Anti-burghers."  In  the  course  of  time, 
however,  they  were  reunited,  and  formed  the  "United 
Secession  Church." 

Another  historical  thread  must  noAv  be  taken  up,  be- 
cause the  body  to  which  it  relates  was  in  the  course  of 
affairs  to  be  united  with  the  one  just  mentioned,  and 
they  together  were  to  form  one  of  the  three  great  Pres- 
byterian denominations  of  Scotland.  The  "Belief 
Church"  also  sprang  out  of  opposition  to  "patronage." 
In  1752  Thomas  Gillespie,  minister  of  Carnock,  was  de- 
posed for  refusing  to  take  part  in  the  installati(^n  of  a 
minister  whom  it  Avas  determined  to  thrust  upon  the 
parish  of  Inverkeithing  against  the  wishes  of  the  pe(^- 
ple.  Gillespie  meekly  submitted,  but,  repairing  to  Dum- 
fermline,  gathered  a  congregation  not  connected  Avitli 
any  denomination.  He  Avas  afterwards  joined  by  other 
ministers,  and  the  "Belief  Church"  was  organized;  so 
named  because  furnishing  relief  to  congregations  op- 
pressed by  "patronage."  This  body  and  the  "United 
Secession  Church  "  prospered,  and,  being  in  sj-mpathy 
on  the  great  question  which  gave  them  both  existence, 
a  union  was  effected  in  1847,  with  great  enthusiasm. 


OF  PEESBYTERIANISM.  145 

Tlie  united  body  was  called  the  "  United  Presbyterian 
Clinrcli  of  Scotland,"  and  is  now  one  of  the  powerful 
sisterhood  of  Presbyterian  churches  in  that  country. 
The  great  principle  of  the  "U.  P.  Church,"  as  it 
is  familiarly  termed,  as  distinguishing  it  from  other 
Presbyterian  bodies  in  Scotland  is  the  entire  inde- 
pendence of  the  church  of  God  of  all  state  control  or 
support.  It  has  been  a  mighty  agency  for  develop- 
ing and  establishing  this  great  truth  in  the  conscious- 
ness of  the  church  at  large.  As  this  history  progresses 
it  will  be  seen  that  this  principle  has  steadily  advanced 
up  to  the  present  time,  not  only  in  Great  Britain  and 
on  the  continent  of  Eiu'ope,  but  also  in  other  parts  of 
the  world. 

The  Free  Church,  another  of  the  great  Presb}i;erian 
bodies  of  Scotland,  came  into  existence  in  May,  1843, 
under  circumstances  of  the  greatest  interest  and  solem- 
nity. At  that  time  four  hundred  and  seventy  ministers 
withdrew  from  the  Established  Church,  and  became  a 
separate  organization.  This  secession  grew  out  of  the 
same  fruitful  source  of  controversy  from  which  nearly 
all  similar  movements  in  Scotland  before  had  arisen — 
the  union  of  church  and  state,  and  the  refusal  to  allow 
the  people  of  a  congregation  to  select  their  own  minister. 
What  were  called  "  forced  settlements,"  or  settlements  of 
pastors  by  the  "  patrons  "  against  the  wishes  of  a  church, 
were  not  imcommon,  but  had  become  odious,  and 
threatened  the  doctrinal  piirity  of  some  congregations. 
In  1884,  under  the  guidance  of  Thomas  Chalmers,  the 
man  of  the  crisis,  the  General  Assembly  passed  a  "  veto 
act,"  which  provided  that,  if  a  majorit}'  of  the  male 
heads  of  families,  being  communicants,  objected  to  the 


146  THE  people's  histoky 

person  nominated  by  the  "  lay  patron,"  the  Presbytery 
should  decline  to  install  him.  Lord  KinnduU,  patron 
of  the  church  at  Anchterarder,  who  had  presented  Mr. 
Eobert  Yonng  to  that  parish,  only  to  be  rejected  almost 
unanimously  by  the  people,  felt  aggrieved  by  this  act 
of  the  Assembly,  and  went  to  the  civil  couiis  to  insist 
upon  his  "  patrimonial  rights."  The  civil  courts  decided 
in  favor  of  Lord  KinnouU,  and  that  the  Presb^iiery  had 
no  poAver  to  refuse  to  induct  Mr.  Young  into  the  parish. 
There  Avas  a  deal  of  troublesome  litigation  over  the 
matter,  but  though  appeals  were  made  to  the  govern- 
ment no  relief  was  gained.  The  courts  and  the  parlia- 
ment refused  to  accede  to  the  demands  of  the  General 
Assembly  for  the  spiritual  independence  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland.  There  was  nothing  left  but  to  separate 
themselves  fi'om  the  state.  So,  in  1843,  Dr.  AYelsli, 
moderator  of  the  Assembly,  laid  upon  the  table,  in  pre- 
sence of  the  queen's  commissioner,  a  "protest,"  setting 
forth  the  wrongs  of  the  church,  and  declaring  the  inten- 
tion of  its  signers  to  secede  and  organize  the  "Free 
Church  of  Scotland."  It  was  in  St.  Andrew's  Church, 
Edinburgh,  that  this  "disruption"  occurred.  As  soon 
as  the  "protest"  was  read,  the  moderator  arose  and  left 
the  church,  followed  by  a  large  number  of  nieml)ers,  in- 
cluding such  men  as  Chalmers,  Guthrie,  Cunningham, 
Duff,  Candlish,  and  McCheyne,  and  proceeded  to  con- 
stitute, in  another  place,  a  Free  Asseml)ly.  The  moral 
grandeur  of  this  scene  is  apparent  in  the  fact  that  these  > 
men  gave  up  all  their  worldl}^  support — every  church- 
building,  manse,  glebe,  and  stipend  (salary) — that  tliey 
might  maintain  the  spiritual  independence  of  the  churcli 
and  her  allegiance  to  her  Divine  Head,  going  out  witli 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  147 

nothing  but  tlieir  faith  and  the  promises  of  God.  Such 
a  movement  for  such  a  cause,  and  hj  such  men,  couhl 
not  fail  to  make  an  impression,  and  Scotland  was  shaken 
to  its  centre ;  indeed,  its  influence  was  felt  all  over  the 
civilized  Avorld.  All  the  foreign  missionaries  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland  joined  the  movement,  and  a  small 
proportion  of  the  landed  gentry ;  Init  from  the  middle 
classes  of  the  people  there  came  a  mighty  response, 
which  has  continued  to  the  present  day,  so  that  the 
number  of  congregations  of  the  Free  Church,  which  at 
first  was  four  hundred  and  seventy,  now  exceeds  a 
thousand,  and  they  have  become  one  of  the  great  agents 
in  the  Church  of  Christ  for  the  estal^lishment  of  the 
spiritual  kingdom  in  Scotland  and  throughout  the  earth. 

Thus  Presbyterianism  in  Scotland  became  divided 
into  three  branches,  all  holding  the  Westminster  Con- 
fession, but  differing  on  the  relations  of  the  church  to 
the  state.  "  The  Church  of  Scotland  "  is  the  established, 
state  church ;  the  other  two  are  the  United  Presbyte- 
rian and  the  "Free  Church  of  Scotland."  Nearly  all 
the  population  is  included  in  these  three  churches,  and 
though  the  controversies  between  the  two  latter  and  the 
former  have  been  sometimes  sharp,  or  even  bitter,  they 
have  undoubtedly  acted  as  a  stimulus  to  each  other's 
zeal  and  oi-thodoxy.  The  old  animosities  which  ar(^se 
out  of  the  controversies  in  which  the  United  Presbyte- 
rian and  Free  Churches  were  born  are  gradually  pass- 
ing away,  and  being  replaced  b}'  a  spirit  of  generous 
rivalry  in  building  up  the  kingdom  of  Christ  and  of  re- 
ciprocal respect. 

The  question  may  be  asked.  Why  did  not  the  United 
Presbyterian  and  the  Free  Churches  unite  in  one  organi- 


148  THE  people's  history 

zation,  as  tliey  were  both  opposed  to  state  control,  and 
held  alike  to  the  Westminster  Confession  ?  The  answer 
is  that,  although  they  l^oth  held  that  the  church  should 
l)e  free  from  the  authority  of  the  state,  yet  they  differed 
as  to  the  matter  of  support,  the  Free  Church  men  claim- 
ing that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  state  to  support  the  church 
while  not  controlling  it,  and  the  United  Presbyterians 
that  the  state  should  haye  nothing  to  do  with  the 
church,  either  in  exercising  authority  or  proyiding  sup- 
port. It  is  illogical  to  expect  any  ciyil  goyernment  or 
person  to  support  an  institution  oyer  which  it  has  no 
control,  and  though  the  Free  Church  started  out  ^\dtli  a 
different  yiew,  it  has  gradually  come  to  hold,  by  a  large 
majority,  the  more  logical  and  scriptural  principle  of 
entire  separation  between  church  and  state.  The  world 
was  not  made  in  a  day,  and  gTeat  principles  are  not 
always  carried  to  their  logical  results  at  once  by  large 
Ijodies  of  people.  The  Free  Church,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Thomas  Clialmers  and  others,  laid  down  the 
principle,  and  staked  their  all  upon  it,  that  the  kingdom 
of  God  is  free  from  the  control  of  ciyil  goyernments  in 
tlie  management  of  its  own  spiritual  affairs ;  and  though 
they  also  held  what  seems  to  us  inconsistent  with  this, 
yiz.,  that  the  state  should  support  the  church,  yet  the 
silent  logic  of  time  was  g(nng  to  bring  them  into  har- 
mony with  their  essential  principle,  and  cause  them  to 
reject  all  that  was  contrary  to  it.  God  leads  his  church 
onward  and  upward  in  her  education  under  the  Holy 
Spirit's  direction.  "He  shall  glorify  me,"  said  our 
Lord,  "  for  he  shall  take  of  mine  and  shall  show  it  unto 

you. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  Old  Kirk,  or  Estab- 


OF  PRESBYTEEIANISM.  149 

lished  Chiircli  of  KScotland,  now  i)ractices  just  wluit 
Chalmers  ciiicl  his  coacljators  contended  for — the  right 
of  the  people  to  reject  ministers  offered  as  their  pastors, 
while  it  is  still  connected  with  and  supported  by  the 
state.  But  the  Free  Church  has  gone  further,  and  now 
demands,  almost  annually,  that  the  "  Church  of  Scot- 
land" be  disestablished.  The  Free  and  United  Pres- 
byterian Churches  now  stand  on  substantially  the  same 
ground.  Some  years  ago  a  union  of  the  two  was  nearly 
consummated,  and  though  it  failed  for  the  time,  it 
seems  probable  that  it  may  at  length  be  effected. 

Thus  the  great  princi]3le  of  the  spiritual  independence 
of  the  Church  of  Christ  has  been  developed  and  estab- 
lished in  Scotland,  and  its  influence  has  been  very  great 
in  securing  the  same  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 
Whether  the  Church  of  Scotland,  the  "  Old  Kirk,"  Avill 
follow  the  same  logic  to  its  end,  and  at  last  become  free 
from  all  state  connection,  is  a  question  which  the  future 
will  decide.  There  can  be  no  denying  that  the  drift  of 
opinion  is  in  favor  of  the  separation  of  church  and  state 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  Protestant  Christendom. 


CHAPTEK  XVIII. 

Peesbyteeianism  in  England. 

IT  lias  already  been  shown  that  in  several  countries 
the  Christianity  of  the  early  times  was  never  en- 
tirely subverted  or  destroyed.  This  may  be  most 
strongly  stated  of  Bohemia,  the  Alpine  fastnesses  of 
Europe,  and  the  western  islands  of  Scotland.  When 
the  Eeformation  came  in  the  sixteenth  century,  the  em- 
l)ers  of  the  unextinguished  fires  of  apostoHc  religion  in 
those  regions  burst  into  flame.  It  is  a  very  signiflcant 
fact  that  in  these  cases  the  Reformation  took  the  form 
of  Presbyterianism.  The  religion  of  the  AValdensian, 
the  Bohemian,  and  the  Scotch  Protestants  was  strongly 
of  the  Presbyterian  type.  Is  it  going  too  far  to  claim 
that  in  this  may  be  discovered  a  connection  between 
Presbyterianism  and  the  church  of  apostolic  times  ?  It 
is  not  an  unwarrantable  assumption,  and,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  New  Testament  history  itself,  is  strongly 
corroborative  proof  of  the  divine  endorsement  of  our 
system. 

AVe  are  now  turning  to  England,  a  country  with  a 
difl'erent  history.  Though  the  Culdees  operated  in 
England  for  ;i  time,  they  did  not  maintain  a  permanent 
])osition  there,  but  were  driven  back  to  Scotland  and 
the  western  isles  Avhence  they  came.  There  was  ]3er- 
luips  not  a  trace  of  them,  and  very  little  of  theu'  work, 
150 


THE  people's  history  OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.        151 

left  behind  after  a  brief  period  of  Koman  Catholic  su- 
premacy. England  has  never  been  a  very  favoral)le 
tield  for  Presbyterianism,  though  the  greatest  elal)ora- 
tion  of  Presbyterianism  as  a  doctrine  and  a  government 
was  made  in  Westminster  Al)be^^',  London,  and  though 
many  noble  men  of  that  faith  have  adorned  its  religious 
history.  Wickliffe,  the  "  Morning  Star  of  the  Pieforma- 
tion,"  Avho  lived  and  labored  two  hundred  years  l)efore 
Luther,  Calvin,  and  Knox,  finished  his  course  in  1384. 
He  made  the  first  complete  translation  of  the  Scriptures 
into  the  popular  tongue  of  the  British,  and  thus  not 
only  gave  the  people  the  Word  of  God,  but  by  this  and 
other  writings  performed  a  marvellous  work  in  unifying 
and  purifying  the  English  language.  Wickliflfe's  Bible 
sowed  the  seeds  of  truth  which  bore  such  gracious  har- 
vests in  England,  Scotland,  and  other  countries  in  sub- 
sequent times.  His  laliors  for  the  propagation  of  the 
gospel,  and  his  courage  in  prosecuting  them,  brought 
down  upon  him  the  wrath  of  the  Koman  hierarchy,  and 
he  was  bitterly,  persecuted;  but  God  mercifully  de- 
fended him  from  his  enemies,  and  he  was  not  put  to 
death,  but  died  at  last  from  paralysis.  Thirty-one 
years  after  his  decease,  tlie  Council  of  Constance,  the 
same  which  burnt  John  Huss,  condemned  Wickhfie's 
writings  to  be  burned,  and  his  body  to  be  taken  up  and 
removed  from  the  "consecrated  ground"  of  an  English 
churchyard  where  it  was  reposing.  This  order  ^\}^s 
not  carried  out  until  thirteen  Aears  afterwards,  when, 
by  command  of  Pope  Martin  V.,  the  senseless  and  futile 
sentence  Avas  executed,  aud  his  bones  were  Imrncd,  tlic 
ashes  being  thrown  into  the  Swift,  a  brancli  of  tlie  Avon. 
The  reason  Wickliffe  is  mentioned  in  tliis  connection 


152  THE  people's  history 

is  because,  tliougli  not  a  fully  developed  Presbyterian, 
lie  held  some  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  our 
church,  and  would  probably  have  carried  them  out  in 
a  h)<>ical  and  complete  system  if  circumstances  had  per- 
mitted. If  he  had  not  been  withheld  by  the  strono- 
hand  of  civil  and  ecclesiastical  tyranny,  and  surrounded 
h\  the  crystallized  superstitions  of  a  nation  not  ready 
for  religious  revolution,  he  would  prolial^ly  have  made 
England  what  Knox  made  Scotland  two  hundred  years 
afterwards.  The  followers  of  Wicklitte  were  called 
"  Lollards,"  a  name  introduced  from  Germany.  They 
contended  against  the  flagrant  errors  of  the  church, 
and,  in  consequence,  were  cruelly  oppressed.  Their 
influence  never  died  out  altogether  in  England,  nor  in 
the  southwest  of  Scotland,  whither  they  also  penetrated, 
but  when  opportunity  came  with  the  Reformation  the 
old  spirit  showed  itself,  taking  on  at  that  time  a  more 
detinite  and  systematic  cliaracter. 

A  strong  Presbyterian  tendency  was  manifested  among 
certain  of  the  English  Reformers  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. Men  like  Cranmer,  Hooper,  Latimer,  and  John 
Knox,  would  have  reconstructed  the  church  after  the 
model  of  Geneva,  or  rather  the  doctrines  and  govern- 
ment of  the  New  Testament,  but  for  the  change  of  senti- 
ment in  the  court  caused  by  the  death  of  Edward  VI., 
and  the  accession  to  power  first  of  Mary,  and  then  of 
Elizabeth.  Mary  was  a  bitter  Papist,  but  her  reign  was 
mercifulh^  short,  only  five  years.  Elizabeth,  though  a 
Protestant,  was  nothing  of  a  Presbyterian,  and  main- 
tained with  indomitalile  will  the  prelatical  system,  and  the 
supremacy  of  the  sovereign  over  the  church.  Puritan- 
ism, afterwards  so  famous  and  bene^cent  in  history. 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  153 

was  the  form  wliicli  the  opposition  to  this  policy  as- 
sumed. Puritanism  was  intensely  Calvinistic,  and  also 
leaned  towards  Presbyterian  government.  After  it  he- 
came  evident  that  the  Church  of  England  could  n(^t  be 
nnKlified,  Presbyterian  ism  in  an  organized  form  was 
established.  The  first  Presbytery  met  at  Wandsworth, 
November  20,  1572,  the  same  year  in  which  died  in 
Scotland  John  Knox,  who  had  been  foremost  among 
those  who  prepared  the  Avay  for  this  movement  during 
the  reign  of  "  good  King  Edward."  Thomas  Cartwright 
and  Walter  Travers  were  the  two  leading  men  of  that 
infant  church.  Presliyterianism  greAv  outside  the  na- 
tional church,  and  Puritanism  within  it,  l)ut  by  the  time 
of  Charles  I.  and  Laud,  Puritanism  had  itself  become 
chiefly  Presbyterian,  and  when  the  "Long  Parliament" 
abolished  Prelacy,  Presliyterianism  was  established  in 
England,  as  the  religion  of  the  nation,  on  June  29th, 
1647,  during  the  sessions  of  the  famous  Westminster 
Assembly.  A  splendid  name  shines  among  the  divines 
of  English  Presbyterians  of  those  early  days,  that  of 
Richard  Baxter,  author  of  "The  Saint's  Everlasting- 
Rest,"  and  the  "Call  to  the  LTn  con  verted,"  as  well  as 
other  useful  works.  "When  he  died  Non-conformist 
England  mourned  her  chief,  and  Episcopal  England 
one  of  her  saints." 

For  twenty  years  Presbyterianism  was  the  national 
church,  though  never  so  fully  developed  and  estab- 
lished as  in  Scotland.  But  after  the  restoration  of  the 
monarchy  it  was  overturned,  and  in  1002  two  thousand 
ministers  were  driven  from  their  churches.  Until  1688, 
o,r  during  the  memorable  twenty-eight  years  of  struggle 
in  Scotland,  Presb}i;erianism  was  under  the  ban.  It 
13 


154      THE  people's  history  of  presbyterianism. 

did  not,  however,  exhibit  that  sturdy  power  of  endur- 
ance so  strikingly  manifested  in  the  noi-thern  kingdom. 
It  remained  passive,  and  at  the  end  of  this  period  had 
become  practically  independent  in  its  administration. 
After  the  dissipation  of  the  Presbyterian  principle  of 
government  in  the  church,  another  worse  thing  hap- 
pened, and  one  not  disconnected  logically  from  the 
first.  It  was  the  decay  of  sound  doctrine.  There  is  a 
far  more  intimate  connection  between  government  and 
doctrine  than  at  first  appears,  and  history  shows  that 
the  strongest  instrumental  agency  for  the  preservation 
of  the  gospel  is  the  maintenance  of  a  scriptural  church 
government.  During  the  eighteenth  century,  which  was 
a  time  of  general  infidelity  in  Europe  and  America,  a 
spirit  of  indifference  and  rationalism  came  over  the 
church,  and  at  length  it  became  largely  permeated  with 
Unitarianism. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  there 
has  been  a  revival  of  English  Presbyterianism  of  the  old 
Calvinistic  type.  Among  some  congregations  the  his- 
toric faith  had  been  adhered  to,  which  was  cultivated 
and  extended  by  ministers  imported  from  Scotland. 
Those  who  had  belonged  to  the  United  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Scotland,  and  also  those  who,  after  the  ''Dis- 
ruption" in  Scotland  in  1843,  formed  one  independent 
Synod,  united  in  1876  in  a  body  of  no  mean  dimensions, 
taking  the  name  of  the  "Presbyterian  Church  of  Eng- 
land." From  that  time  there  has  been  a  strong  growth 
throughout  the  kingdom,  and  now  the  church  is  recog- 
nized as  a  power  in  the  religious  life  of  the  nation. 


CHAPTEK  XIX. 

Presbyterianism  in  Wales. 

IT  will  surprise  many  who  have  not  made  a  study  of 
such  matters  to  learn  that  there  is  a  great  and  in- 
fluential body  of  Presbyterians  in  Wales.  They  call 
themselves  "the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist  Church." 
A  branch  in  the  United  States  is  named  "the  Welsh 
Presbyterian  Church."  The  name  Methodist  does  not 
indicate  that  they  are  not  Presbyterian.  The  Welsh 
Calvinistic  Methodist  Church  is  a  member  of  the  "Al- 
liance of  Reformed  churches  throughout  the  world 
holding  the  Presbyterian  system." 

The  history  of  the  origin  and  progress  of  this  church 
is  most  remarkable.  There  had  been  considerable  pre- 
paratory work  done  from  1716  by  certain  evangehcal 
preachers  of  the  Established  Church,  one  of  whom  was 
Rev.  Griffith  Jones,  called  the  "morning  star  of  the 
Methodist  Revival."  The  Welsh  Methodist  Revival, 
properly  so  called,  began  in  1735-'36  in  the  eiforts  of 
Howell  Harris,  Daniel  Rowlands  and  Howell  Davies, 
Davies  being  a  pupil  and  convert  of  Griffith  Jones. 
Their  work  was  within  the  Established  Church,  though 
they  were  sorely  persecuted  by  that  body.  The  first 
clmrch  organization  of  the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Meth- 
odists was  effected  in  1736.  AVithin  three  years  thirty 
congregations  were  estabhshed  in  South  Wales.  Their 
155 


156  THE  people's  histoky 

first  General  Association  was  held  at  Watford,  Glamor- 
gansliire,  January  5,  1742,  two  years  and  a  half  prior 
to  the  first  conference  of  English  Methodists,  or  Wes- 
ley ans  (Arminian),  convened  by  Wesley  in  London. 
The  Welsh  Cahinistic  Methodists  partook  of  the  same 
great  revival  spirit  as  that  which  animated  the  Metho- 
dists of  England  under  the  Wesleys,  but  differed  from 
them  in  doctrine  and  polity,  the  Welsh  being  Calvinis- 
tic  and  Presbyterian,  and  the  English  being  Arminian 
and  Episcopal.  The  difierences  in  doctrinal  belief  be- 
tween the  Wesleys  and  Whitfield  are  well  knoAvn,  and 
George  Whitfield,  one  of  the  most  wonderful  preachers 
of  his  own  or  any  other  age,  was  the  moderator  of  the 
first  General  Association  of  the  Welsh  Calvinists.  This 
church  has  done  a  wonderful  Avork  in  the  Principality 
of  Wales,  and  is  altogether  the  strongest  agency,  in  that 
interesting  country,  for  the  propagation  of  the  gospel. 
In  1813  the  "Home  Mission  Society"  was  organized, 
to  operate  principally  in  parts  of  England  bordering  on 
Wales.  In  1823  a  Confession  of  Faith  was  adopted. 
A  theological  seminary  was  founded  in  1839  at  Bala, 
and  in  1812  another  at  Trevecca.  Until  1810  the  For- 
eign Missionary  Avork  was  carried  on  through  the  Lon- 
don Foreign  Missionary  Society,  but  since  that  time 
the  church  has  maintained  missions  of  its  own  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  foreign  field.  The  denomination  at- 
tained its  complete  devel()})nient  in  18(51,  when  it  or- 
ganized a  General  Assembly  at  Swansea.  It  is  com- 
posed of  two  Synods  and  twent}-five  Presbyteries.  No 
liturgy  is  used,  but  the  services  are  in  the  simplest 
form,  and  usually  in  the  AVelsh  language. 

Stevens,    in  his  "History  of  Methodism,"    gives   a 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  157 

graphic  description  of  the  work  of  tlie  Welsh  Calvinis- 
tic  Methodists,  showing  their  "extraordinary  reHgious 
progress,  b}'  which  the  thirty  dissenting  churches  of 
1715  have  increased  (in  1857)  to  2,300,  by  which  a 
chapel  (chnrch)  now  dots  nearly  every  three  square 
miles  of  the  country,  and  over  a  million  people,  nearly 
the  whole  Welsh  population  (seven-eighths),  are  found 
attending  public  worship  some  part  of  every  Sabbath." 

Irish  Presbyterianism. 

In  the  earlier  pages  of  this  history  an  account  was 
given  of  the  Culdees,  or  ancient  Presbyterians,  whose 
base  of  operations  was  the  little  island  of  lona,  off  the 
west  coast  of  Scotland,  and  how  they  sent  missionaries 
to  many  portions  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  as  well  as 
Great  Britain.  The  founder  of  the  community  of  lona, 
Avliich  did  so  much  for  Scotland,  was  Columba,  an 
Irishman,  and  one  of  the  earliest  preachers  of  religion 
in  Ireland  was  St.  Patrick,  a  Scotchman.  It  is  thus 
seen  that  from  the  beginning  there  was  an  intimate 
connection  between  the  religion  of  Caledonia  and 
that  of  Hibernia. 

The  church  of  St.  Patrick  accomplished  great  good 
for  the  moral  and  intellectual  condition  of  the  Irish, 
and  its  influence  was  long  felt  in  the  countrv.  The 
Irish  church  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries  was 
distinguished  for  its  seats  of  learning  and  its  mission- 
ary zeal;  and  the  literature  of  Ireland  was  at  that 
period  two  hundred  years  in  advance  of  that  of  most 
nations  of  northern  Europe.  It  has  been  characteristic 
of  Ireland  for  many  generations  that  the  extremes  of 
human  life  have  been  strikingly  exhilnted  among  its 
people.     Among   the    Irish    have   nsually  been   found 


158  THE  people's  history 

many  of  the  highest  and  many  of  the  lowest,  the  most 
learned  and  the  most  ignorant,  the  richest  and  the 
poorest.  Among  some  classes,  and  in  certain  portions 
of  the  Island,  are  now  as  prosperous  communities  as 
may  be  found  on  earth,  communities  composed  of  cul- 
tivated, thrifty  christian  people,  enjoying  the  blessings 
of  industry  and  virtue,  while  in  others  may  be  seen 
degradation,  superstition  and  want.  The  Protestant 
communities  of  Ireland  are  of  the  former  kind.  The 
province  of  Ulster  in  the  north,  including  such  cities  as 
Londonderry  and  Belfast,  is  largely  Protestant  and 
Presbyterian.  Of  the  Presbyterians  in  Ireland,  the 
greater  number  reside  in  Ulster,  though  there  are  strong 
congregations  of  that  faith  in  other  quarters. 

The  first  Presbyterian  minister  who  appeared  in  Ire- 
land after  the  Eeformation  began  in  Europe  was  Walter 
Tr avers,  in  1594.  He  was  the  first  regular  provost  of 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  an  institution  which  now  stands 
among  the  foremost  seats  of  learning  in  the  world. 
OA\ing  to  the  troubled  condition  of  the  country,  he  did 
not  remain  long  in  this  position.  During  the  reign  of 
James  I.  in  Great  Britain,  a  few  Scottish  ministers  were 
driven  by  persecution  to  take  refuge  in  Ulster.  One 
of  these  was  Edward  Brice,  who  had  a  charge  near 
Carrickfergus,  in  County  Antrim.  About  the  same 
time  a  number  of  Scotchmen  obtained  bishopricks  in 
Ulster,  but  being  of  Presbyterian  training  they  did  not 
exact  conformity  to  the  Episcopal  ritual  from  the  Scot- 
tish ministers  who  had  settled  around  th(^m.  When 
the  t^Tannical  Wentworth  was  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  government  in  Ireland  all  this  was  changed,  and 
strict  conformity  required  of  every  one.  All  the  Pres- 
b^i^erian  ministers  were  exiled  in  a  short  time. 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  159 

In  1642  a  Scottish  army  was  sent  to  Ireland  to  sub- 
due a  rebellion  which  had  been  organized  against  the 
government.  They  brought  chaplains  with  them,  who 
not  only  preached  to  the  soldiers,  but  also  gathered 
into  congregations  the  scattered  Presbyterians  already 
on  the  ground.  Many  of  these  people  had  come,  along 
mth  others  from  Great  Britain,  about  thirty  years  be- 
fore to  establish  what  was  called  ''  The  Plantation  "  in  Ul- 
ster, a  sort  of  colony.  The  immigration  now  increased 
rapidly,  and  at  the  restoration  of  the  monarchy,  in  1660, 
there  were  one  hundred  Presbyterian  congregations  in 
Ulster,  representing  a  population  of  100,000.  During 
the  period  which  followed  the  accession  of  Charles  II. 
in  England,  to  the  Kevolution,  under  William  III.,  those 
ever-memorable  twenty-eight  years,  when  the  Cove- 
nanters endured  so  much  in  Scotland,  the  Ulster  Pres- 
byterians were  also  cruelly  treated.  They  were  forbid- 
den to  exercise  their  religion  in  any  ]3ul)lic  manner,  a 
fine  of  one  hundred  pounds  being  inflicted  upon  any 
dissenting  minister  who  dared  to  celebrate  the  Lord's 
Supper.  They  were  obliged  to  meet  for  worship  in  the 
greatest  secrecy,  and  were  often  interrupted  by  the  of- 
ficers of  the  law,  and  their  ministers  cast  into  prison. 
Peace  returned  with  the  change  of  government  in  Eng- 
land, in  1688. 

King  James  11. ,  after  his  ignominious  flight  from 
London,  established  himself  in  Ireland.  At  this  period 
occurred  the  famous  siege  of  Londonderry,  a  Protestant 
town  in  the  extreme  north.  The  arrest  of  the  army  of 
James  11.  at  this  point,  was  of  the  utmost  importance  to 
the  three  kingdoms.  The  siege  lasted  one  hundred  and 
five  days,  and  all  supplies  having  been  cut  oft'  by  the 


160  THE  people's  history 

besieging  army,  the  determined  garrison  were  reduced 
to  tlie  necessity  of  eating  rats,  and  gnawing  slioe-leatlier. 
The  siege  was  raised  at  hist  by  the  arrival  of  tliree  Eng- 
Hsh  ships  with  snppHes,  after  which  the  army  of  James 
retired.  Bnt  his  cause  was  doomed.  WilHam  III. 
landed  at  Carrickfergus,  stepping  from  his  vessel  upon 
a  large  stone  which  is  still  shown  to  visitors  at  the  land- 
ing place  in  front  of  the  castle,  and  soon  afterwards 
gained  a  signal  victory  at  the  famous  battle  of  the 
Boyne.  This  was  in  1690 ;  the  next  year,  by  another 
^dctory  at  Aughrim,  the  defeat  of  James  was  rendered 
complete,  and  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded. 

During  the  eighteenth  century  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Ireland  experienced  something  of  the  same 
decadence  of  doctrinal  purity  and  spirituahty  Avhich 
characterized  the  religious  life  of  England  and  the  con- 
tinent during  that  period.  There  was  a  general  de- 
partiu'e  from  the  old  paths  of  conservative  orthodoxy. 
In  1727  the  Presl)yterian  Church  was  weakened  in 
numbers  by  the  secession  of  those  who  were  so  tinctured 
with  Unitarianism  as  to  be  unable  to  subscribe  to  the 
Westminster  standards.  The  seceders  organized  them- 
selves into  what  was  called  "The  Presbytery  of  An- 
trim." They  received  small  suppc^rt  from  the  mass  of 
the  people,  but  those  who  remained  in  the  Synod  of 
Ulster  showed  no  great  zeal  for  the  truths  which  they 
professed.  Meanwhile,  however,  the  Scotch  who  set- 
tled in  Ireland  were  doing  a  great  deal  to  maintain 
sound  doctrine  in  the  pro^dnce  of  Ulster.  Sixty  years 
after  they  established  their  first  congregation  they  num- 
bered ninety  ministers.  In  1750  their  first  Presbytery 
was  constituted. 


OF  PEESBYTEKIANISM.  161 

In  1761  Matthew  Lyiid,  tlie  first  Irish  covenanting 
minister,  was  ordained.  The  Covenanters,  or  Re- 
formed Presbyterians,  made  steady  progress  from  that 
date,  and  in  1792  organized  their  first  Presbytery. 

The  Synod  of  Ulster,  under  the  leadership  of  Henry 
Cooke,  freed  itself  at  last  from  the  blight  of  Unitarian- 
ism,  and,  in  1829,  the  Unitarians  were  separated  from 
the  body.  From  that  event  began  the  revival  of  spirit- 
ual life,  which  caused  a  rapid  increase  in  the  numbers 
and  power  of  the  church,  and  has  not  ceased  to  this 
day.  In  1835  the  Synod  of  Ulster  adopted  an  overture 
requiring  all  its  ministers  to  subscribe  to  the  Westmin- 
ster Confession  of  Faith.  This  act  removed  the  ground 
of  difference  between  itself  and  the  Secession  Synod, 
and  they  were  united,  in  1840,  in  a  body  called  "  The 
General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Ire- 
land." It  had  then  133  congregations,  but  has  in- 
creased rapidly,  so  that  now  it  has  under  its  care  fully 
half  a  million  adherents.  This  fact  is  all  the  more  sig- 
nificant in  view  of  the  constant  drain  of  population 
from  which  it  has  suffered  by  emigration  to  the  British 
colonies  and  the  United  States. 

In  1869  an  act  of  parliament  was  passed,  disestab- 
tablishing  and  disendowing  the  Episcopal  Church  of 
Ireland,  Avhich  leaves  the  people  free  to  work  out  their 
religious  convictions  without  interference  by  the  state. 
It  is  not  probable  that  in  the  whole  Presbyterian  sister- 
hood throughout  the  world  there  is  a  purer,  more  evan- 
gelical, or  more  vigorous  body  than  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Ireland.  American  Presbyteriauism  is  in- 
debted to  it  for  many  of  its  best  members  and  noblest 
ministers  of  the  Word. 


CHAPTEE  XX. 

PKESBYTElilANISM    IN    THE    EnDS   OF   THE    EaRTH. 

THE  extension  of  Presbjterianism  throughout  the 
world  lias  been  largely  accomplished  through  the 
instrumentality  of  the  magnificent  colonial  system  of 
Great  Britain.  The  British  Empire  extends  to  all  cli- 
mates, and  many  races  of  men,  speaking  dift'erent  lan- 
guages, live  under  its  sway.  In  most  cases  this  rule 
has  been  beneficial,  resulting  in  the  establishment  of 
stable  governments  where  before  was  a  condition  little 
better  than  anarchy  or  despotism,  and  by  bringing  the 
various  peoples  into  commercial  connection  with  civili- 
zation. Another  benefit  has  been  in  the  settlement  of 
sturdy  colonies  of  English,  Scotch,  Irish  and  Welsh,  in 
nearly  all  of  the  dependencies.  No  more  enterprising 
or  courageous  nation  has  ever  existed,  and  they  have 
established  in  many  countries  colonies  which  have  be- 
come centres  of  civilizing  infiuence. 

The  laws,  customs,  language  and  religion  of  an  Anglo- 
Saxon  civilization,  have  thus  been  carried  to  many 
lands,  bringing  blessings  with  them.  There  should  be 
no  jealousy  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States.  The  latter,  first  established  as  a  colony  of 
England,  and  which,  in  the  providence  of  God,  became 
a  separate  nation,  started  out  with  the  laws  and  cus- 
toms of  the  mother  country,  modified  to  suit  the  new 
162 


THE  PEOPLE  S  HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.         103 

circumstances.  Though  there  were  many  things  firmly 
imbedded  in  the  institutions  of  the  Enghsh  which  were 
wisely  left  east  of  the  Atlantic,  yet  the  marvellous  de- 
velopment of  national  life  in  America  has  been  but  the 
outgrowth,  in  a  new  world,  of  certain  principles  and 
tendencies  which  had  been  ripening  in  England  for 
hundreds  of  years.  For  obvious  reasons  the  progress 
of  principles  is  more  rapid  in  new  countries.  Though 
Great  Britain  is  an  empire,  and  the  United  States  a  re- 
public, there  is  a  wonderful  harmony  in  the  national 
tendencies  of  the  two  peoples.  Indeed  there  is  a  grow- 
ing feeling  of  friendship  between  England  and  America, 
as  there  should  be,  and  it  is  coming  to  be  understood 
that  the  English-speaking  race  is  one,  with  a  great  mis- 
sion to  accomplish  in  the  world. 

The  various  religious  denominations  of  Great  Britain, 
Avitli  their  fully  developed  systems  of  doctrine  and 
government,  have  been  planted  in  the  colonies.  Epis- 
copalians, Methodists,  Baptists  and  Presbyterians,  are 
found  in  nearly  all  countries.  Cranmer,  Wesley,  Bun- 
yan  and  Knox,  with  what  they  strove  to  establish,  have 
become  the  heritage  of  the  world ;  and  their  spiritual 
descendants  are  laboring  shoulder  to  shoulder,  if  not 
always  heart  to  heart,  for  the  extension  of  the  kingdom 
of  Christ.  It  is  not  a  matter  of  surprise  that  so  enter- 
prising and  brave  a  people  as  the  Scotch  should  have 
representatives  in  all  the  colonies,  and  indeed  wherever 
civilized  man  has  found  a  home.  They  have  carried 
their  industry,  good  sense  and  honesty  with  them.  The 
name  of  a  Scotchman  has  no  mean  significance ;  for  it 
has  generally  been  associated  with  courage,  honesty 
and  thrift.     In  that  wit  and  wisdom  so  necessary  to 


164  THE  people's  history 

success  in  life,  the  "  canny  Scot"  is  not  easily  surpassed. 
But  wherever  he  goes,  he  takes  with  him  the  customs 
of  liis  country,  which  he  ever  calls  "home,"  and  en- 
deavors to  have  a  little  Scotland  of  his  own.  He  cai- 
ries  his  Confession  of  Faith,  Catechism,  Bible  and 
Psjdm-l)ook,  and  from  his  dwelling  or  his  kirk,  on  the 
l)anks  of  the  Ganges,  the  St.  La^NTence,  or  in  the  islands 
of  the  southern  Pacihc,  his  simple  praise  ascends  to 
heaven  in  words  and  music  liorn  in  the  land  of  the  l)lue 
bells  and  heather. 

This  is  the  reason  why  Presbyterianism  in  all  Eng- 
lish-speaking countries  is  of  the  British  type,  rather 
than  the  Continental,  and  why  the  Westminster  stand- 
ards are  held  without  important  alterations,  except  in 
the  matter  of  the  relations  of  the  church  to  the  state, 
in  nearly  all  their  churches. 

Australia  came  into  the  hands  of  the  British  about 
the  time  the  colonies,  which  afterwards  became  the 
American  Uuioii,  Avere  separating  themselves  from  the 
motlier  country-.  This  magniticent  possession,  a  conti- 
nent nearly  as  large  as  the  whole  of  Europe,  is  furnished 
with  marvellous  natural  resources.  The  settlements  are 
mainly  along  the  seal^^ard,  and  it  was  not  until  1860, 
when  a  reward  of  ten  thousand  pounds  was  offered  by 
the  government  to  any  onc^  who  would  traverse  this  vast 
island,  that  much  was  known  of  the  int(n-i(^r. 

Tliere  are  handsome  and  beautiful  cities  in  tlie  sev- 
eral provinces,  among  which  are  Sydney,  Melbourne, 
and  Adelaide,  and  the  general  aspect  of  the  country 
gives  the  impression  of  prosperity  and  thrift. 

Australia  is  divided  into  provinces,  and  the  Presby- 
terian Church  of  the  country  into  several  independent 


OF  PRESBYTEPJANISM.  1G5 

bodies,  thongli  inoyements  are  in  progress  Avliicli  Avill 
probably  result  in  their  unification.  In  the  province  of 
Victoria  there  is  a  Presbyterian  population  of  130,000. 
Their  first  minister  was  Mr.  Clow,  in  1830,  a  retired 
army-chaplain ;  and  he  was  followed,  after  two  years,  by 
Mr.  Forbes,  who  was  sent  out  by  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land. There  is  now  a  General  Assembly,  mth  subor- 
dinate courts,  carrying  on  a  successful  home  and  for- 
eign work.  In  New  KSouth  Wales,  Eastern  Australia, 
Queensland,  South  Australia,  Tasmania,  and  New  Zea- 
land, there  are  active  and  useful  Presbyterian  bodies. 
When  the  Presliyterianism  of  all  Australasia  shall  have 
been  united,  the  result  will  be  a  great  and  influential 
church. 

In  South  Africa  there  are  large  bodies  of  Presbyte- 
rians divided  among  Cape  Colony,  Orange  Free  State, 
Natal,  and  the  South  African  Eepublic.  The  prevail- 
ing organization  is  the  Dutch  Keformed,  which  was  es- 
tablished with  the  colony,  in  1652.  Many  Huguenots, 
flying  from  France  after  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of 
Nantes,  made  their  homes  with  the  Dutch,  and  strength- 
ened their  hands  in  the  work  of  the  gospel.  They  were 
also  joined  by  large  numbers  of  English  and  Scotch 
Presbyterians. 

In  Ceylon,  the  West  Indies,  and  South  America, 
there  are  also  colonial  churches.  It  would  be  impos- 
sible, within  the  limits  of  such  a  volume  as  this,  to  give 
even  a  brief  sketch  of  every  branch  of  the  Presbyterian 
famil}^,  nor  would  it  be  interesting  to  the  general  reader 
to  trace  the  origin  and  history  of  many  small,  though 
promising  organizations. 

Canada  has  the  largest  of  all  the  colonial  churches. 

14 


106  THE  TEOrLE's  HISTORY 

This  country  constitutes  one  of  the  l)rightest  jewels  in 
the  British  crown.  Its  great  size  may  be  more  easily 
apprehended  by  an  opening  sentence  in  a  description 
of  Canada,  written  by  a  recent  visitor  from  Europe : 
"Travel  a  thousand  miles  up  a  great  river;  more  than 
another  thousand  over  inland  seas  and  lakes ;  a  thou- 
sand miles  across  rolling  prairies ;  and  yet  another  thou- 
sand miles  through  woods  and  over  three  great  ranges 
of  moimtains,  and  you  have  travelled  from  ocean  to 
ocean  through  Canada."  The  Dominion  of  Canada  is 
divided  into  nine  provinces,  each  having  its  separate 
local  legislature,  and  all,  except  Newfoundland,  con- 
federated under  one  general  government,  having  its  seat 
in  the  city  of  Ottawa.  The  population  is  estimated  at 
4,000,000.  Of  these  1,800,000  are  Roman  CathoUcs. 
There  are  about  680,000  Presbyterians. 

Presbyterianism  dates  its  origin  in  Canada  from  1765, 
when  George  Henry,  a  military  chaplain,  began  regular 
ministrations  in  Quebec.  The  first  Presbyterian  con- 
gregation in  Montreal  was  established  by  Mr.  Bethune. 
This  congregation  worshipped  in  a  Roman  Catholic 
church  until  1792,  when  its  members  erected  a  building 
of  their  own.  In  recognition  of  the  kindness  of  the 
Recollet  Fathers,  who  had  lent  them  the  church,  "  The 
Society  of  Presbyterians,"  as  they  Avere  called,  pre- 
sented the  good  Fathers  with  "two  hogsheads  of  Span- 
ish wine  and  a  box  of  candles,"  which  were  "thankfully 
accepted."  In  1787  Mr.  Bethune  removed  to  Glen- 
gary,  in  Upper  Canada,  now  in  the  province  of  Ontario. 
This  place  was  settled  by  Scottish  Highlanders,  and  has 
been  a  stronghold  of  Presbyterianism  ever  since.  In 
1803  the  Presb}i^ery  of  Montreal  was  constituted  by 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  167 

two  ministers  and  one  elder.  For  many  years  there 
was  little  growth  of  Presbyterianism  in  Canada.  At 
length,  however,  a  tide  of  British  immigration  set  in, 
bringing  large  numbers  of  Presbyterians.  The  advance 
was  now  rapid,  and  in  1831  "the  Synod  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  of  Canada,  in  connection  with  the  Church 
of  Scotland,"  was  constituted.  There  were  on  its  roll  the 
names  of  twenty -five  ministers.  About  the  same  time  a 
number  of  ministers,  chiefly  of  the  Associate  Church  of 
Scotland,  organized  themselves  as  "The  United  Synod 
of  Upper  Canada."  In  1840  this  Synod  joined  the 
Synod  in  connection  with  the  Church  of  Scotland,  by 
which  its  numbers  increased  to  eighty-two  ministers. 
Another  body  called  "  The  United  Presbyterian  Church 
in  Canada,"  descended  from  the  church  of  the  same 
name  in  the  mother  country,  was  organized,  and  grew 
rapidly,  doing  an  excellent  work.  When  the  "Dis- 
ruption" of  1843  occurred  in  Scotland,  it  had  its  echo 
in  Canada,  and  the  next  year  tw^enty-five  ministers 
withdrew  from  the  Synod  in  connection  wdtli  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  and  set  up  a  separate  body,  taking 
the  name  of  "The  Presbyterian  Church  of  Canada." 
These  three  clmrches  labored  on  together  for  seventeen 
years,  when,  in  1861,  their  number  w^as  happily  reduced 
to  two,  by  a  union  of  the  United  Presbyterians  and 
those  last  mentioned,  who  represented  the  Free  Church 
of  Scotland.  The  united  body  w\as  named  "  The  Canada 
Presbyterian  Church,"  and  had  two  hundred  and  twenty- 
six  ministers  at  the  outset.  It  prospered  greatly,  and 
in  1870  a  General  Assembly  was  constituted. 

In  the  eastern  or  "maritime"  provinces  two  inde- 
pendent bodies  had  been  developing.     In  New  Bruns- 


168  THE  people's  history 

wick,  Prince  Edward's  Islund,  and  Newfoundland,  Pres- 
byterianisni  made  early  settlements.  The  first  Pres- 
In-tery  in  British  Noi-th  America  was  formed  in  1780, 
with  three  ministers,  Messrs.  Smith,  Cock,  and  Graham. 
In  1791  Dr.  James  McGregor  and  two  other  ministers 
organized  "the  Associate  Presbytery  of  Nova  Scotia." 
After  twenty-three  years  these  two  bodies  united,  form- 
ing a  Synod,  and  took  the  name  of  "The  Presb;Ni^erian 
Clnirch  of  Nova  Scotia."  "The  Synod  of  Nova  Scotia, 
New  Brunswick,  and  Prince  Edward's  Island,"  in  con- 
nection with  the  Church  of  Scotland,  was  constituted  in 
1833.  The  Presbytery  of  NeAv  Brunswick,  however, 
declined  the  union,  and  assumed  the  name  of  "The 
Synod  of  New  Brunswick."  In  1868  they  were  united. 
The  Synods  of  the  United  Presbyterian  and  Free 
Churches  in  the  province  had  already  come  together  in 
1860.  Thus  the  way  was  prepared  for  a  comprehensive 
union  of  the  Presbyterian  Churches  of  all  the  provinces, 
east  and  west.  On  the  15th  day  of  June,  1875,  this 
consummation  was  realized,  when  the  "Presbyterian 
Church  in  Canada,  in  connection  with  the  Church  of 
Scotland,"  the  "Canada  Presl)yterian  Church,"  the 
"  Church  of  the  Maritime  Provinces  in  connection  with 
the  Church  of  Scotland,"  and  the  "Presbyterian  Church 
of  the  Lower  Provinces,"  were  all  fused  into  one  great 
body  called  "The  Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada," 
representing  nearly  three-quarters  of  a  million  of  souls. 
This  chiTrch  is  remarkably  well  equipped  with  edu- 
cational facilities,  having,  among  other  institutions,  col- 
leges in  Kingston,  Toronto,  Montreal,  Quebec,  Hali- 
fax, and  Winnipeg.  The  "Presbyterian  Church  in 
Canada  "  is  bound  to  play  a  most  important  part  in  the 


OF  PRESBYTEEIANISM.  169 

future  history  of  tliat  highly  promising  country,  in 
which  it  is  by  far  the  most  influential  Protestant  de- 
nomination. It  carries  on  a  vast  Home  Mission  work, 
employing  two  hundred  and  eighty  missionaries.  It 
also  has  an  extensive  mission  among  the  million  and  a 
quarter  French-speaking  people  of  the  Dominion,  em- 
ploying some  eighty-five  missionaries,  teachers,  and 
colporteurs.  It  also  carries  on  extensive  Foreign  Mis- 
sion operations  among  the  Northwest  Indians ;  in  For- 
mosa, China;  Central  India,  Trinidad,  and  the  New 
Hebrides.  The  contributions  of  this  church  for  mis- 
sions in  1887  were  1283,000,  and  for  all  church  pur- 
poses $1,533,000. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

Old  PEiNCirLEK  in  a  New  Woeld. 

THE  principles  of  government  under  which  the  peo- 
ple of  the  United  States  of  America  now  live  were 
not  born  on  July  4,  1776,  when  the  colonies  declared 
their  independence  of  Great  Britain.  Though  they 
had  never  before  had  so  fair  a  field  for  development, 
their  existence  may  be  traced  far  back  in  history.  An 
institution  is  the  embodiment  of  a  principle,  and  the 
principles  Avliich  animate  our  institutions,  iioav  the  ad- 
miration of  the  civilized  world,  have  existed  from  the 
days  of  Moses.  This  history-  has  lieen  concerned  with 
the  progress  of  the  principle  of  repul)lican  government 
in  the  church,  and  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  state.  It 
has  l)een  the  inspiration  of  the  noblest  struggles  in  all 
the  past,  and  the  belief  in  its  final  triumph  has  been  the 
star  of  hope  to  most  lovers  of  mankind.  A\  e  have  seen 
h(nv  it  was  fought  for  by  the  Waldenses,  Culdees,  Bo- 
hemians, Hungarians,  Swiss,  French,  Dutch,  English, 
German,  Irish  and  Scotch ;  we  have  sympathized  with 
the  heroes  of  all  these  countries  in  their  sufferings ;  and 
in  their  successes  our  hearts  have  been  thrilled  with 
joy.  The  principle  of  civil  and  religious  liberty,  hav- 
ing contended  with  tyranny  for  thc^usands  of  years, 
and  having  even  in  the  midst  of  its  bitterest  conflicts 
given  the  richest  blessings  to  the  race,  was  at  length 
170 


THE  people's  history  OF  PEESBYTERIANISM.         171 

to  have  a  better  Held  opened  for  its  exercise ;  the  im- 
prisoned spirit  was  to  be  set  free  in  a  new  world.  He 
who  guides  all  history,  having  made  this  the  dearest 
possession  of  the  human  mind,  except  its  hope  of 
heaven,  and  having  hallowed  it  by  many  a  trial  and  by 
the  blood  of  some  of  the  noblest  of  earth,  opened  in  the 
fulness  of  time  the  Western  Hemisphere,  and  gave  it 
to  liberty  as  its  peculiar  possession.  Delivered  from 
Eygpt,  led  across  a  wide  waste,  liberty  found  a  prom- 
ised land  west  of  the  Atlantic,  where  three  thousand 
miles  of  sea  separated  from  the  religious  and  civil  des- 
potisms Avhich  had  made  the  history  of  a  thousand 
years  a  sickening  tale  of  cruelty  and  woe. 

Nine  years  after  the  birth  of  Luther,  North  America 
was  discovered,  but  it  was  not  peopled  then.  It  waited 
two  hundred  years  for  its  important  settlements.  Eu- 
rope Avas  not  ripe,  the  time  had  not  come.  A  fcAV  ad- 
venturers explored  its  shores,  bringing  home  wonderful 
stories  of  an  almost  limitless  land ;  but  not  until  a  vast 
body  of  liberty-loving  Protestants  had  been  trained  in 
Europe,  did  that  mighty  exodus  begin  which  has  con- 
tinued to  the  present,  and  which  has  grown  to  such  vast 
proportions.  But  God  sent  some  of  his  best  peoj^le 
first,  to  lay  foundations  for  the  future,  and  to  prepare 
for  the  millions  that  were  to  follow.  They  were  the 
Huguenots,  the  Dutch,  the  Puritans,  the  Scotch,  and 
the  Scotch-Irish.  Was  ever  a  nation  founded  by  such 
noble  people?  Educated  in  human  and  divine  learn- 
ing, purified  in  the  furnace  of  aftliction,  made  to  love 
libei*ty  and  truth  better  than  life,  riches,  and  home,  they 
were  drwen  away  from  Europe  to  occupy  North  Amer- 
ica.    They  would  not  have  come  willingly ;  such  people 


172  THE  people's  history 

love  their  conntiy,  the  graves  of  then*  ancestors,  and 
woukl  prefer  the  pursuit  of  industry  and  virtue  in  a 
quiet  life.  The}^  needed  to  he  torn  up  hj  the  roots, 
and  forced  by  cruel  edicts,  and  by  the  sword,  to  under- 
take the  mighty  task  of  building  up  civilization  in  a 
Avilderness.  The  oppressive  measures  which  were 
adopted  in  Great  Britain,  drove  from  their  homes  great 
numbers  of  the  Presbyterians  of  England,  Ireland,  and 
Scotland.  The  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  in 
France,  in  1685,  brought  death  to  thousands,  and  sent 
multitudes  into  exile. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  immigrants  to  America  dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth,  and  the  early 
part  of  the  eighteenth  centuries,  were  Calvinistic  in 
doctrine  and  Presbyterian  in  polity.  They  came  from 
Scotland,  England,  Ireland,  Holland,  Germany,  and 
France,  and  they  brought  their  principles  with  them. 
Perhaps  it  might  better  be  said  tliat  their  principles 
brought  t/te//}.  The  prevailing  religious  tone  of  the 
colonies  was  Calvinistic. 

The  influence  of  the  Presbyterians,  in  connection  with 
other  dissenters,  in  the  establishment  of  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  colonies,  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 
Merle  D'Aubigne  says,  "  Calvin  was  the  founder  of  the 
greatest  of  republics.  The  Pilgrims  who  left  their  coun- 
try in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  and,  landing  on  the  barren 
soil  of  New  England,  founded  populous  and  mighty 
colonies,  were  his  sons,  his  direct  and  legitimate  sons ; 
and  that  American  nation  which  we  have  seen  growing 
so  rapidly,  boasts  as  its  father  the  humble  reformer  on 
the  shores  of  Lake  Leman."  The  English,  Scotch,  and 
Irish   Presbvterians   avIio   came  to  America,   were  not 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  '  173 

tbnist  out  of  their  own  country  by  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics, but  by  the  Church  of  Enghind ;  or,  in  the  words 
of  Bancroft,  by  "the  imphicable  ditferences  between 
Protestant  dissenters  and  the  estal)Kshed  Anglican 
Church.  ...  A  young  French  refugee  (John  CVdvin), 
skilled  in  theology  and  civil  law,  in  the  duties  of  mag- 
istrates, and  in  the  dialectics  of  religious  controversy, 
entering  the  republic  of  Geneva,  and  conforming  its  ec- 
clesiastical discipline  to  the  princi^^les  of  republican 
simplicity,  established  a  party  of  which  Englishmen  be- 
came members,  and  New  England  the  asylum."  Cas- 
telar,  the  eloquent  Spanish  statesman,  declares  that 
"  The  Anglo-Saxon  democracy  is  the  product  of  a  se- 
vere theology  learned  by  the  few  Christian  fugitives  in 
the  gloomy  cities  of  Holland  and  of  Switzerland,  where 
the  morose  shade  of  Calvin  still  wanders.  .  .  .  And  it 
remains  serenely  in  its  grandeur,  forming  the  most  dig- 
nified, most  moral,  most  enlightened,  and  richest  por- 
tion of  the  human  race."  So  also  Bancroft,  in  another 
place,  says :  " He  that  will  not  honor  the  memory  and 
respect  the  influence  of  Calviii,  knoAvs  but  little  of  the 
origin  of  American  independence.  .  .  .  The  light  of  his 
genius  shattered  the  mask  of  darkness  which  supersti- 
tion had  held  for  centuries  before  the  brow  of  religion." 
One  of  the  most  imj^ortant  elements  in  the  tide  of 
immigration  that  came  to  America  was  the  Scotch- 
Irish,  or  people  from  Ireland  (principally  the  northern 
part),  whose  ancestors  w^ere  Scotch.  It  need  hardly 
be  stated  that  they  were  Presbyterians,  and  that  of  a 
high  order.  The  Scottish  blood  lost  nothing  by  its 
contact  with  the  Irish,  some  of  Avhicli  it  absorbed,  and 
the  result  was  a  type  of  character  in  which  firmness  and 


174  THE  people's  history 

wit  were  l)leiKled.  Great  numbers  of  Scotcli-Irisli  set- 
tled ill  New  York  cind  Pennsylvania,  being  particularly  nu- 
merous in  the  latter.  From  Pennsylvania  they  gradually 
spread  down  into  the  Shenandoah  Yalley  of  Virginia,  and 
further  on  into  Tennessee,  North  Carolina  and  South 
Carolina.  They  have  been  characterized  everywhere 
l)y  thrift,  honesty,  and  patriotism,  and  their  descendants 
have  had  a  great  influence  in  the  social,  educational, 
religious,  political  and  military  aftairs  of  the  nation. 
They  have  scattered  all  over  the  Union,  and  are  re- 
cognized as  an  element  of  stability  and  conservatism 
in  all  places  where  they  have  made  their  homes. 

It  must  not  be  understood  that  the  Presbyterians  and 
others  who  came  to  America  to  escape  persecution  were 
permitted  to  exercise  their  principles  without  a  struggle. 
Tliey^  were  called  "Dissenters"  in  the  colonies  as  well 
as  at  home,  and  were  oppressively  treated  by  the 
Church  of  England  in  America.  Wherever  that  church 
could  exert  its  power  the  "Dissenters"  felt  it.  In  Vir- 
ginia and  New  York  all  the  people,  irrespective  of  their 
religious  convictions,  had  to  pay  taxes  to  support  the 
Established  Church.  In  1707  Francis  Makemie,  the 
apostle  of  American  Presbyterianism,  was  imprisoned 
in  New  York  by  Lord  Cornbury,  for  being  "  a  strolHng 
preacher,"  and  disseminating  "pernicious  doctrines." 
Though  political  oppression  was  the  visible  cause  of 
the  rupture  with  the  mother  country,  the  element  of 
religious  feeling  entered  largely  into  the  influences 
which  made  it  possible,  and  Jones'  "History  of  New 
York  "  states  that  the  occasion  of  some  of  the  first  out- 
breaks against  royal  authority  was  the  refusal  of  the 
dissenters  to  pay  the  church  taxes  levied  upon  them." 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  175 

A  natural  consequence  of  this  state  of  things  was  that 
tlie  dissenters  should  identify  in  their  minds  the  Estab- 
lished Church  with  the  government  of  England,  and 
that  the  church  itself  should  support  the  government 
by  which  it  was  supported.  Thus  it  came  about  that 
the  Episcopal  clergy  sympathized  with  the  crown  in  the 
great  struggle  for  independence,  while  the  dissenting 
churches,  not  being  sustained  by  the  state,  were  in 
favor  of  the  Revolution,  which  promised  to  place  all  de- 
nominations on  an  equal  footing.  Of  course  there  were 
numerous  exceptions  to  this  general  rule  among  the 
clergy,  and  particularly  the  laity  of  the  Episcopal 
Church,  as  was  the  case  with  George  Washington,  who 
was  a  member  of  that  communion.  But  the  leaders  of 
the  Revolution  were  generally  Congregationalists,  Bap- 
tists, Dutch  Reformed,  or  Presbyterians.  "  The  Pres- 
byterians were,"  Bancroft  declares,  "the  supporters  of 
religious  freedom  in  America.  ...  It  was  from  Witlier- 
spoon,  of  New  Jersey,  that  Madison  imbibed  the  lesson 
of  perfect  freedom  in  matters  of  conscience."  The 
same  writer  says:  "In  Virginia  the  Presbytery  of  Han- 
over took  the  lead  for  liberty,  and  demanded  the  abo- 
lition of  the  Anglican  church  and  the  civil  equality  of 
every  denomination."  Rev.  Samuel  Davies,  of  Han- 
over county,  was  the  champion  of  religious  liberty  for 
the  Old  Dominion,  and  he,  with  the  Presbytery  of  Han- 
over, contended  for  spiritual  independence.  Opposed 
to  them  were  the  Anglican  clergy,  who  defended  their 
own,  the  Established  Church.  The  immortal  Patrick 
Henry,  whose  mother  was  a  member  of  Mr.  Davies' 
church,  and  who  himself  attended  the  ministry  of  that 
eloquent  preacher  in  his  youth,  strove  Avith  his  charac- 


170  THE  PEOrLE's  HISTOEY 

teristic  vehemence  to  have  all  denonmiations  recognized 
and  supported  bv  the  government.  The  PreslMerj  in 
a  vigorous  protest  addressed  to  the  Legislature  said : 
"Therefore  it  is  eontrarv  to  our  principles  and  interest, 
and  as  we  think  subversive  of  religi(^us  lil)ertv,  we  do 
again  most  earnestly  entreat  that  our  Legislature  would 
never  extend  any  assessment  for  religious  purposes  to 
us  or  to  the  congregations  under  our  care." 

After  the  War  of  Independence  an  attempt  was  made 
to  secure  to  the  Episcopal  Chiu'ch  all  the  property, 
glehe-lands,  etc.,  it  had  received  from  the  government 
before  the  Revolution.  The  scheme  seemed  about  to 
succeed  in  the  Legislature  of  Virginia,  when  the  old 
Presl)vtery  of  Hanover  came  again  to  the  front  in  de- 
fence of  religious  liberty.  80  strong  Avas  their  resist- 
ance that  the  wdiole  subject  was  dropped,  and  this  was 
the  end  of  an  Established  Church  in  Virginia.  The 
other  States  which  had  Established  Churches  soon  fol- 
lowed this  example,  and  religion  was  free  at  last  in  the 
New  World.     May  it  continue  free  forever ! 

The  first  Declaration  of  Independence  was  made  in 
North  Carolina,  a  year  before  the  more  famous  one 
in  Philadelphia,  by  the  Scotch-Irish  Presbyterians  of 
Mecklenburg  county,  and  consequently  called  the 
"  Mecklenburg  Declaration."  On  May  31,  1775,  at  the 
city  of  Charlotte,  in  a  meeting  called  to  consider  the  in- 
justice of  the  British  government  in  its  treatment  of  the 
colonies,  they  adopted  a  declaration  of  which  the  fol- 
lowing is  an  extract : 

"We  do  hereby  dissolve  the  political  bands  which 
have  connected  us  with  the  mother-country,  and  hereby 
absolve    ourselves   fi-om  all  allegiance  to  the    British 


OF  PKESBYTEBIANISM.  177 

Crown."  ....  "We  hereby  declare  ourselves  a  free 
and  independent  people ;  are,  and  of  riglit  ought  to  be, 
a  sovereign  and  self-governing  association,  under  control 
of  no  power  other  than  that  of  our  God  and  the  general 
government  of  Congress ;  to  the  maintenance  of  which 
we  solemnly  pledge  to  each  other  our  mutual  co-opera- 
tion and  our  Hves,  our  fortunes,  and  our  most  sacred 
honor." 

The  men  who  solemnly  adopted  these  declaration?, 
were  the  children  of  the  Covenanters,  and  were  destined, 
in  the  impending  struggle,  to  prove  themselves  worthy 
of  their  noble  ancestors.  They  were  twenty-seven  in 
number,  one-third  of  whom  were  Presb}i:erian  elders, 
one  was  a  Presbyterian  minister,  and  all  of  them  were  con- 
nected in  some  way  with  the  Presbyterian  Church.  The 
chairman  of  the  meeting,  William  Alexander,  and  Dr. 
Ephraim  Brevard,  one  of  the  clerks,  were  PresbjH^erian 
elders.  The  latter  presented  the  declaration,  which  is 
said  to  have  been  drawn  up  l)y  his  brother,  Adam  Bre- 
vard, wh(:>  was  a  lawyer,  and  who  is  reported  to  have 
declared  that  his  principal  guide  in  preparing  that 
famous  document  was  the  Westminster  Confession  .of 
Faith,  which,  as  then  pubhshed,  contained  the  Scottish 
Covenants.  A  copy  of  the  Mecklenburg  Declaration  was 
sent  to  Congress,  then  in  session  at  Philadelphia,  and 
it  was  also  published  in  North  Carolina  newspapers. 
The  next  year  there  was  a  general  uprising  of  the  other 
colonies,  and,  following  the  example  of  their  brethren 
in  the  South,  they  renounced  their  allegiance  to  the 
king,  and  threw  down  the  gauntlet  of  war. 

The  Declaration  of  Independence,  made  in  Philadel- 
phia the  year  following,  was  drawn  up  by  Thomas  Jef- 
15 


178  THE  people's  history 

ferson,  and  a  comparison  of  the  two  documents  shows 
that,  in  some  matters,  he  borrowed  from  the  Declara- 
tion of  the  Mecklenburg  patriots  of  the  preceding  year. 
But  at  the  time  when  the  sturdy  Scotch-Irish  Presby- 
terians of  North  Carolina  were  defying  the  British  gov- 
vernment,  and  throwing  off  its  authority,  many  of  the 
leading  men  in  other  colonies  were  still  clinging  to  a 
hope  for  the  maintenance  of  the  royal  authority  under 
a  redress  of  grieyances.  In  August,  1775,  Thomas  Jef- 
ferson said :  "  I  would  rather  be  in  dependence  on 
Great  Britain,  properly  limited,  than  on  au}^  nation  on 
earth,  or  tlian  on  no  nation.'"  Washington  said,  in  May, 
1776:  "When  I  took  command  of  this  army  (June, 
1775,)  /  ahhorred  the  idea  of  independence''  These 
braye  men  soon  gravitated  to  the  point  before  reached 
by  the  Mecklenburgers,  and  demanded  independence, 
but  the  children  of  the  Coyenanters  were  in  advance, 
and  there  is  not  a  doubt  but  that,  as  Bancroft  writes, 
"the  first  voice  publicly  raised  in  America  to  dissolve 
all  connection  with  Great  Britain  came,  not  from  the 
Puritans  of  New  England,  nor  from  the  Dutch  of  New 
York,  nor  the  planters  of  Virginia,  but  from  the  Scotch- 
Irish  Presbyterians." 

Among  those  most  prominently  associated  with  the 
cause  of  liberty  in  the  struggles  of  the  Revolution  was 
Dr.  John  Witherspoon,  of  New  Jersey,  the  president  of 
Princeton  College.  He  was  a  Scotchman,  a  Presbyte- 
rian minister,  and  descendant  of  John  Knox.  He  was 
a  leading  member  of  the  provincial  congress  of  New 
Jersey,  and  afterwards  for  six  years  of  the  Continental 
Congress.  His  name  is  among  the  signers  of  the  De- 
claration of  Independence.  By  his  wisdom,  courage, 
piety,  and  patriotism  he  exercised  a  marked  influence 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  179 

in  shaping  the  conrse  of  events,  and  has  left  a  name 
crowned  with  honor. 

When  General  Washington  was  elected  to  the  presi- 
dency, the  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  addressed  to  him  a  letter,  expressing  their 
gratification  thereat,  and  hopes  of  his  usefulness  in  this 
office,  closing  with  these  words :  "  We  pray  Almighty 
God  to  have  you  always  in  his  holy  keeping.  M^y  he 
prolong  your  valuable  life,  an  ornament  and  a  blessing 
to  your  country,  and  at  last  bestow  on  you  the  glorious 
reward  of  a  faithful  servant ! " 

To  this  Washington  replied  in  a  letter  of  great 
modesty  and  coui*tesy,  concluding  with  the  following 
paragraph :  ''I  desire  you  to  accept  my  acknowledg- 
ments for  your  laudable  endeavors  to  render  men  sober, 
honest,  and  good  citizens,  and  the  obedient  subjects  of 
a  lawful  government,  as  well  as  for  your  prayers  to 
Almighty  God  for  his  blessings  on  our  common  country, 
and  the  instrument  which  he  has  been  pleased  to  make 
use  of  in  the  administration  of  its  government." 

"George  Washington." 

The  nation  set  out  on  its  mission,  holding  the  two 
precious  treasures  of  civil  and  religious  repubhcanism, 
and  the  churches  began  their  work  of  teaching  men  to 
love  God  and  one  another.  The  United  States,  a  free 
country,  with  free  churches,  has  accomplished  marvel- 
lous things  up  to  the  present ;  this  all  the  world  knows, 
and  what  it  may  yet  do,  if  its  citizens  are  faithful  to  the 
truth  and  to  the  lessons  of  the  past,  only  God  can  tell. 

Let  us  now  go  back,  and  trace  the  origin  and  pro- 
gress of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  the  United  States, 
which  has  borne  an  important  part  in  the  history  of 
the  country. 


CHAPTEE  XXII. 

Peesbytekianism  in  America  before  the  Eevolution. 

rr^HE  first  bodies  of  immigrants  of  the  Presbyterian 
JL  order,  to  those  regions  now  inchided  in  the  terri- 
tory of  the  American  Union,  Avere  Hugnenots,  sent  over 
by  Admiral  CoHgny,  in  1562  and  1565.  The  former 
established  themselyes  in  the  Carolinas,  but  the  enter- 
prise Avas  soon  abandoned.  The  colonists  of  1565  set- 
tled in  St.  Augustine,  Florida,  Avliere  they  hoped  to 
haye  liberty  to  worship  God  according  to  their  con- 
sciences. 

But  Roman  Catholic  cruelty  followed  them,  and  they 
Avere  massacred  hy  the  Spaniards,  hardly  enough  being 
left  to  tell  the  tale.  It  was  fitting  that  a  country,  con- 
secrated by  a  baptism  of  such  blood  as  this,  should 
afterwards  become  an  asylum  for  the  oppressed  of  aU 
nations. 

The  second  attempt  to  esfal)lisli  a  colony  of  the  Re- 
formed or  Presbyterian  faith  was  more  successful.  This 
was  a  Huguenot  movement  also.  The  colony  was  sent 
from  the  Netherlands,  consisting  of  thirty  famihes, 
chiefly  "AValloons,"  as  the  French  Hugiienots  Avho  had 
taken  refuge  among  the  Dutch  were  called.  They 
founded,  in  16'23,tlie  city  of  New  Amsterdam,  now  New 
York,  Avliere  French  Avas  spoken,  and  the  Huguenot 
faith  professed  from  the  outset.  Other  settlements  of 
i8o 


THE  PEOrLE's  HiSTOnt  OP  PiiESBYTERIANISM.         181 

Huguenots  were  afterwards  made  in  Massachusetts, 
Maryland,  Virginia  and  South  CaroHna.  Their  num- 
bers, though  considerable,  were  never  very  great,  but 
their  influence  has  been  marked  in  the  subsequent  his- 
tory of  America.  From  this  noble  race  have  come 
many  of  the  foremost  men  of  church  and  state  in  the 
republic. 

The  first  congregation  in  this  country  of  the  Presby- 
terian or  Keformed  system  of  doctrine  and  polity  was 
organized  in  New  Amsterdam,  in  1628,  by  Jonas 
Michaelius,  of  more  than  fifty  communicants,  consist- 
ing of  Walloons  (Huguenots)  and  Dutch,  and  was  a 
Dutch  Keformed  church.  This  was  the  origin  in  America 
of  the  Eeformed  Dutch  church,  which  has  grown  to  be  one 
of  the  influential  denominations  of  the  land.  It  has  now 
dropped  the  word  "  Dutch "  from  its  name,  being  sim- 
ply called  the  "Keformed  Church  in  America."  In 
proportion  to  its  numbers,  it  is  the  wealthiest  religious 
body  in  the  United  States,  and  is  second  to  no  other 
member  of  the  great  Presbyterian  or  Keformed  Confed- 
eration in  soundness  of  doctrine  and  in  evangehca.l 
tone.  In  the  Keformed  Clmrch  in  America,  as  in 
Europe,  a  church  session  is  called  a  "consistory,"  a 
Presbytery  a  "classis,"  a  S}Tiod  a  "particular  Synod," 
and  the  General  Assembly  the  "  General  Sjoiod."  An 
attempt  has  been  made  to  effect  a  union  between  the 
Keformed  Church  and  the  Presbyterian  Church,  but  it 
was  not  successful,  and  this  honorable  body  still  main- 
tains its  independent  existence  and  work. 

The  Puritans  of  England  and  America  were  divided 
into  two  parties,  the  Presbyterians,  and  the  Indepen- 
dents or  CongregationaHsts.     In  New  England,  those 


182  THE  people's  history 

called  "Puritans"  were  generally  Presbyterians,  but  the 
"Pilgrims"  were  Congregationalists,  though  even  the 
Pilgrims  recognized  the  office  of  elder  for  a  long  time. 
It  came  to  be  restricted  to  one  elder  for  each  congrega- 
tion, and,  at  last,  was  allowed  to  die  out  altogether. 
But  the  "Puritans"  of  New  England  never  maintained  a 
strong  Prebji^erianism  of  the  Scottish  type.  The  re- 
sult of  the  contact  of  the  two  classes  in  New  England 
was  a  compromise  of  Presb^^terianism  and  Indepen- 
dency, which  became  more  and  more  Congregational 
as  the  colony  progressed. 

The  first  Puritans  from  England  came  to  Virginia. 
At  Bermuda  Hundred  Bev.  Alexander  Whitaker  minis- 
tered to  a  church  as  early  as  1614.  The  Puritan  ele- 
ment increased  considerably  up  to  1642,  when  the  Gov- 
ernor, Sir  William  Berkeley,  appointed  by  the  crown, 
began  a  course  of  persecution  of  all  dissenters  from  the 
Church  of  England,  which  broke  up  the  Puritan  con- 
gregations. Many  of  them  took  refuge  on  the  shores 
of  Maryland,  near  the  site  of  the  present  cit}^  of  Annap- 
olis. But  they  were  not  welcomed  in  Maryland,  and 
attempts  were  made  by  the  officials  of  Lord  Baltimore 
to  prevent  their  effecting  a  permanent  settlement.  They, 
however,  maintained  their  hold.  Whether  churches 
were  formally  organized  or  not,  cannot  he  determined, 
but  they  were  served  by  Presbyterian  ministers,  among 
whom  were  Francis  Doughty  (1658),  and  Matthew  Hill 
(1667).  AVhen  WiUiam  Traill,  moderator  of  the  Pres- 
b}^ery  of  Laggan,  Ireland,  fled  to  America  for  refuge 
fiom  persecution,  he  also  came  to  Maryland  in  1682. 

There  were  settlements  of  Presl)yterians  in  Long 
Island,  at  a  very  early  date.     At  Hempstead,  Bichard 


OF  PRESBYTEEIANISM.  183 

Denton  ministered  to  a  congregation  from  1644  to  1659. 
A  clinrcli  was  established  at  Jamaica,  Long  Island, 
about  tlie  middle  of  the  seventeenth  centnry.  At 
Sonthold  a  congregation. was  organized  in  1640,  which 
is  now  under  the  care  of  the  General  Assembly,  though 
it  did  not  become  connected  with  organized  Presbyte- 
rianism  until  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

In  New  Jersey,  Presbyterian  churches  were  founded 
at  Newark  (1667),  Elizabeth  (1668),  Woodbridge  and 
Fairfield  (1680). 

The  first  Presbyterian  church,  bearing  the  Presby- 
terian name,  in  New  York  city,  was  formed  in  1717, 
and  was  partly  supported,  for  a  time,  by  contributions 
sent  from  Scotland. 

In  Maryland  churches  were  organized  at  Snow  Hill 
and  Kehoboth  in  1684  by  Francis  Makemie.  He  was 
sent  out  from  the  north  of  Ireland  to  gather  together  the 
scattered  Presbyterians  in  America.  Makemie  was 
eminently  qualified  for  his  work,  a  truly  remarkable 
man,  who  may  be  called  the  founder  of  organized  Pres- 
byterianism  in  America.  He  was  born  of  Scottish  an- 
cestry, near  Rathmelton,  County  Donegal,  Ireland. 
The  exact  date  of  his  birth  is  unknown.  He  was  or- 
dained by  the  Presbytery  of  Laggan  as  a  missionary  to 
America.  His  mission  to  the  Western  World  was  in 
consequence  of  a  request  for  a  minister  sent  over  to 
Ireland  by  Colonel  Stephens,  of  Maryland.  Makemie 
married  a  lady  belonging  to  a  wealthy  Virginia  family. 
Evidence  has  been  adduced  to  show  that  before  the  or- 
ganization at  Snow  Hill,  by  Makemie,  there  was  a 
Presbyterian  church  in  Virginia  on  the  Elizabeth  river, 
near  the  present  site  of  the  city  of  Norfolk,  a  congrega- 


184  'THE  people's  HlfiTORY 

tion  of  wliicli  the  present  First  Presbyterian  Clinrcli  of 
Norfolk  nia}^  be  considered  the  descendant.  The  his- 
torical testimony  for  this  is  found  in  Spragiie's  Annals, 
Vol.  iii,  p.  6,  in  a  letter  by  Makemie  himself.  He  writes 
in  1684:  "In  my  yisit  to  EUzabeth  riyer,  in  May,  I 
found  a  poor,  desolate  people,  mourning  the  loss  of 
their  dissenting  minister  from  Ireland,  whom  the  Lord 
had  been  pleased  to  remoye  by  death  the  summer  be- 
fore." 

Francis  Makemie  was  indefatigable  in  his  labors, 
going  from  place  to  place  preaching  and  organizing 
churches.  His  great  want  was  pastors  for  the  congre- 
gations. He  corresponded  with  the  mother  country, 
and  even  visited  Great  Britain,  as  well  as  New  England, 
to  secure  assistants.  His  imprisonment  in  New  York 
for  nearly  two  months  for  being  a  "Dissenter"  has 
already  been  mentioned ;  and  though  he  was  acquitted 
])y  the  jury  which  tried  him,  he  had  to  pay  over  three 
hundred  dollars  costs.  The  clergy  of  the  Episcopal 
church  in  Virginia  also  objected  to  his  work,  and  he 
was  summoned  to  appear  at  Williamsburg,  the  capital, 
to  give  an  account  of  himself  before  the  Governor. 
This  he  did  with  such  ability  and  success  as  to  gain  for 
liimself  a  license  to  preach  at  liberty  throughout  the 
colony. 

The  first  Presbytery,  called  the  "Presbytery  of  Phil- 
adelphia," was  organized  in  Philadelphia  in  1706  by 
seven  ministers,  Davis,  Wilson,  Andrews,  Taylor,  Mac- 
nisli,  Hampton,  and  Francis  Makemie,  who  was  made 
moderator.  The  first  Presbyterian  ordination  was  that 
of  Mr.  Boyd,  in  1706,  by  this  Presbytery.  In  1716 
they  had  become  strong  enough  to  divide  into  three 


OF  niESBYTElUANISM.  185 

Presbyteries,  Pliiladelpliia,  New  Castle,  and  Long- 
Island,  and  proceeded  to  constitute  the  Synod  of  Phil- 
adelphia with  seventeen  ministers.  From  this  time  the 
growth  of  Presbyterianism  was  steady,  though  not 
rapid.  In  1729  the  Westminster  standards  were  for- 
mally adopted  by  the  Synod,  and  subscription  thereto 
made  a  condition  of  membership  for  ministers  in  the 
church.  This  was  not  accomplished,  hoAvever,  without 
serious  consequences.  Some  members  of  the  Synod 
objected  to  this  rule  as  being  too  strict,  and  contended 
for  more  liberty  of  opinion.  These  being  in  the  minor- 
ity, failed  to  have  their  views  adopted,  and  so  the 
Synod  divided  into  two  independent  bodies,  called  the 
''New  Side  Synod  of  New  York,"  and  the  "Old  Side 
Synod  of  Philadelphia."  This  occurred  in  1741,  and 
was  the  first  schism  in  the  American  Presbyterian 
church.  But  the  matter  of  subscription  to  the  West- 
minster standards  was  not  the  onl}^  ground  of  differ- 
ence between  the  "Old  Side"  and  the  "Ncav."  Eev. 
William  Tennent  had  established  in  1727  in  Bucks 
county,  Pennsylvania,  an  educational  institution  called 
"  The  Log  College."  The  building  was  of  the  rudest 
character,  and  the  university-trained  men  considered 
the  scholarship  of  the  graduates  of  the  Log  C^ollege  in- 
sufficient, though  some  of  its  «A/;/iy// afterwards  became 
very  eminent  in  the  church.  This  became  a  source  of 
irritation  at  the  time,  the  "  Old  Side"  objecting  to  the 
influence  of  Tennent's  college.  Another  cause  of  trou- 
ble was  the  mighty  revival  which  swept  the  country 
from  Georgia  to  New  Hampshire.  George  Whittield, 
Jonathan  EdAvards  and  Gilbert  Tennent  preached  the 
Gospel   with    marvelous   power,   and   thousands  were 


186  THE  PEOrLE's  HISTORY 

converted  to  Christ.  The  "NeAV  Side"  sympathized 
with  this  movement,  but  the  "Old  Side"  looked  upon 
it  with  distrust. 

Both  "Sides"  felt  the  need  of  better  educational 
facilities,  and  the  "New  Side"  took  measures  for  the 
development  of  the  Log  College  into  an  institution  of 
high  grade,  which  resulted  in  the  estabhshment  of  the 
"  College  of  New  Jersey,"  or  what  is  popularly  called 
"  Princeton  College,"  now  a  magnificent  seat  of  learning. 

This  division  of  the  church  lasted  seventeen  years, 
and  was  healed  in  1758,  when  the  bodies  came  together 
under  the  name  of  "  The  Synod  of  New  York  and  Phil- 
adelphia." 

The  tendency  to  division  has  ever  charactei'ized 
Presb}i}erianism,  and,  while  its  results  have  not  been 
always  happy,  it  shows  that  Presb3i;erians  love  what 
they  conceive  to  be  the  truth  far  more  than  mere  ex- 
ternal unity  and  form.  No  other  body  has  done  so 
much  for  the  propagation  of  sound  doctrine  among 
men  as  the  Presbyterian  or  Eeformed  Church.  Its 
members  have  seldom  been  known  to  surrender  or 
compromise  their  convictions  for  the  sake  of  expe- 
diency, even  to  save  their  property  and  their  Hves. 

There  is  another  line  of  Presbyterian  history  begin- 
ning before  the  War  of  Independence  and  reachini; 
down  to  the  present  day,  which  must  be  mentioned 
here.  In  1753  the  Kevs.  Alexander  Gellatly  and  An- 
drew Ai-nott  were  sent  over  to  America  by  the  Asso- 
ciate Synod  of  Scotland  and  organized  in  Pennsylva- 
nia the  "Associate  Presbytery  of  America."  In  1771 
Eevs,  Matthew  Lynd  and  Alexander  Dobbin,  coming 
from  Ireland,  constituted  the  "  Reformed  Presbyterian 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  187 

Cliurcli  of  America."  Both  of  these  enterprises  grew, 
and  being  in  sympathy  with  one  another,  a  union  be- 
tween them  Avas  consummated  in  1782,  and  the  neAv 
body  was  styled  "The  Synod  of  the  Associate  Ee- 
formed  Church."  Some  of  the  Associate  ministers  did 
not  go  with  their  church  in  this  union,  but  maintained 
a  separate  existence  until  1858.  At  that  time  the 
union  was  consummated,  and  the  result  was  the  forma- 
tion of  "The  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  North 
America."  Among  the  principles  of  this  eminently 
conservative  church  have  been  opposition  to  the  use  of 
uninspired  hymns  in  public  worship,  to  slavery,  and  to 
secret  societies.  It  refuses  communion  to  those  who  do 
not  agree  to  its  distinctive  tenets. 

At  present  the  United  Presbyterian  church,  which 
extends  into  twenty-one  States,  with  Presbyteries  in 
Canada,  Egypt,  and  India,  has  91,086  communicants. 
Some  other  smaller  bodies  in  America  are  briefly  de- 
scribed in  Chapter  XXIX. 


CHAPTEK  XXIII. 

From   the   First  General   Assembly  in  the  United 

States  to  the  Old  and  New  School 

Division  of  1837. 

DURING  the  great  War  of  IiKlependenee  tlie  Pres- 
byterians almost  universally  fonglit  on  the  Amer- 
ican side.  They  were  perhaps  the  strongest  element  ar- 
rayed against  the  crown,  and  prominent  loyalist  officials, 
in  their  letters  to  the  home  government,  charged  them 
with  being  the  ringleaders  of  the  reljellion.  Presby- 
terian church  buildings  and  manses  were  seized  by  the 
British  sc^ldiers  and  used  as  hospitals  or  as  stables  for 
their  horses,  or  Avere  destroyed  l)y  tire. 

Not  only  did  the  members  of  the  Presbyterian 
churches,  in  the  exercise  (^f  their  personal  rights  as 
citizens,  with  commendable  patriotism  and  courage 
contend  for  independence,  but  the  courts  of  the  church, 
also,  in  souk^  instances,  entered  into  the  field  and 
adopted  resolutions  calling  upon  the  people  to  support 
tlit^  caus(^  of  liberty. 

AYlum  the  war  ended  and  the  Republic  started  upon 
its  career,  it  became  necessary  to  change  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  church  in  some  paHiculars,  to  adapt  it  to 
the  condition  of  things  under  the  new  government. 
Provision  was  made  for  this  change  by  the  Synod  on 
the  29th  of  May,  1788,  and  measures  were  at  once 
i88 


people's  history  of  presbyterianism.         189 

adopted  for  the  division  of  the  body  into  four  Synods 
and  the  erection  of  a  General  Asseml)ly  the  year  f()l- 
lowing.  The  fonr  Synods  were  the  Synod  of  New 
York  and  New  Jersey,  the  Synod  of  PhiLxdelphia,  tlie 
Synod  of  Virginia,  and  the  Synod  of  the  CaroKnas. 
Before  the  old  Synod  dissolved  it  was  ordered  that  a 
General  Assembly  convene  in  Philadelphia,  May  21st, 
1789,  and  that  Rev.  John  Witherspoon,  D.  D.,  open 
the  meeting  with  a  sermon  and  preside  until  a  modera- 
tor could  be  chosen.  This  arrangement  was  carried 
out,  and  Dr.  Witherspoon  became  the  first  presiding 
officer  of  the  first  General  Assembly  of  the  Presb}i^erian 
church  in  the  United  States  of  America.  After  the  As- 
sembly had  been  constituted  by  Dr.  Witherspoon,  the 
Rev.  John  Rogers,  D.  D.,  of  New  York,  was  elected  mod- 
erator, and  Rev.  George  Duffield,  of  Carl^de,  Pennsyl- 
vania, stated  clerk.  The  first  Congress  of  the  United 
States,  under  the  present  constitution,  was  in  session  at 
the  same  time  in  New  York.  The  Presbyterian  church 
had  now  become  an  influential  body.  There  were  re- 
ported at  this  first  Assembly  177  ministers,  431 
clmrches,  about  18,000  communicants,  and  $852  con- 
tributed for  missions.  Among  its  first  acts  were  the 
estal)lisliment  of  a  missionary  fund ;  arranging  for 
the  publication  of  a  revised  and  authorized  edition  of 
the  "Confession  of  Faith;"  and  the  adoption  of  a 
solemn  pastoral  letter  to  the  churches  under  its  care. 
The  ecclesiastic  republic  then  being  completely  organ- 
ized for  its  labors,  and  the  civil  republic  having  estab- 
lished itself  among  the  nations,  greetings  were  ex- 
changed between  the  two.  A  letter  addressed  to  Pres- 
ident Washington  by  the  General  Assembly  and  his 
i6 


190  THE  people's  history 

courteoi"is  response  thereto,  were  briefly  described  in  a 
former  chapter.  The  chairman  of  the  committee  ap- 
pointed to  present  this  communication  to  the  President 
was  Dr.  Witherspoon,  the  Hfe-long  friend  of  Washing- 
ton. 

Soon  after  the  war  an  intimacy  sprang  up  l:)etween 
the  Presbyterians  and  the  CongregationaUsts.  At  first 
this  was  sufficiently  expressed  by  the  exchange  of  fi^a- 
ternal  commissioners  at  the  annual  meetings  of  the 
General  Assembly  and  the  Congregational  Associations. 
But  as  this  intimacy  grew  the  way  was  preparing  for  a 
closer  relationship,  and  in  1801  both  parties  adopted 
a  "  Plan  of  Union."  This  well-intentioned  scheme 
provided  that  any  Congregational  church  might  have 
a  Presb}i:erian  pastor,  who  should  retain  his  seat  in  his 
Presbytery,  and  that  the  church  might  be  represented 
in  that  court,  not  by  an  elder,  but  a  committee-man,  or 
delegate  chosen  by  the  congregation.  This  comprom- 
ise of  a  fundamental  princi23le  could  not  fail  to  have  a 
serious  effect  upon  the  polity  of  the  whole  church,  and 
in  consequence  American  Presbyterianism  became 
somewhat  loose  in  its  administration. 

The  CuMBEPtLAND  Presbyterian  Church. 

It  has  already  been  shown  that  the  first  schism  in 
the  American  Presbyterian  church  gi^ew  partly  out  of 
the  great  revival  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Another 
rupture  was  about  to  occur  from  a  similar  cause.  The 
Cumberland  Presbyterian  church  is  the  result  of  a 
division  made  in  1810.  In  1797,  under  the  labors  of 
a  Presbyterian  minister,  Kev.  James  McGready,  a  re- 
markable  revival   began    in    southwestern    Kentucky. 


OF  PRESBYTEEIANISM.  191 

This  revival  attained  such  proportions,  and  the  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  churches  was  so  large,  that 
the  demand  for  ordained  ministers  could  not  be  met. 
Under  the  pressure  of  this  need,  the  Cumberland  Pres- 
bytery of  Kentucky  proceeded  to  ordain  to  the  minis- 
try men  who  did  not  possess  the  educational  qualifica- 
tions required  by  the  constitution  of  the  church.  Many 
of  these  new  ministers  Avere  also  unable,  by  reason  of 
peculiar  doctrinal  views,  to  subscril)e  to  the  Confession 
of  Faith.  The  dissension  which  followed  in  the  Synod 
of  Kentucky,  in  consequence  of  this  action,  culminated 
in  1806  in  the  dissolution  of  the  Cumberland  Presby- 
ter},  and  in  the  annexation  of  the  members  considered 
sound  to  the  Presbytery  of  Transylvania.  This  led  to 
the  formation  of  a  council  by  those  who  dissented  from 
the  action  of  the  Synod,  and  this  council  had  charge  of 
their  operations  until  1810,  when  they  reorganized,  on 
the  4th  of  February,  the  Presbytery  of  Cumberland,  at 
the  house  of  Mr.  McAdow,  in  Dickson  County,  Tennes- 
see. It  was  constituted  as  an  independent  Presbytery. 
This  body  grew  steadily,  multiplying  into  other  Pres- 
byteries, and  now  it  has  all  the  courts  of  a  complete 
church  imder  a  General  Assembly,  representing  a  total 
of  138,564  communicants.  Their  form  of  government 
is  Presbyterian,  but  though  they  have  adopted  the 
AVestminster  standards,  it  was  not  Avithout  material 
alteration  by  way  of  sul)stituting  a  form  of  Arminian- 
ism  for  some  of  the  strong  Calvinistic  statements.  The 
Larger  Catechism  was  omitted  altogether  ;  also  some  of 
the  sections  of  the  chapter  on  "  God's  Eternal  Decree." 
The  congregations  of  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian 
church  are  mostly  in  the  Mississippi  VaUey  and  the 


192  THE  people's  history 

Southwest.  Their  name  is  derived  from  the  Presby- 
tery of  Cumberhmd,  situated  iu  the  country  contiguous 
to  the  Cumberland  river. 

The  Old  and  New  School  Division. 

Another  controversy  now  appears  in  the  American 
Presbyterian  Church,  and  one  which  resulted  in  a  divi- 
sion on  a  much  larger  scale  than  any  that  had  gone 
before.     It    grew   partly    out   of  the  workings  of   the 

(i/"Plan  of  Union"  with  the  Congregationalists,  and 
partly  out  of  the  great  revival  of  religious  zeal  through- 
out the  country  at  that  period.  Missionary  and  bene- 
volent societies  were  organized  in  gi-eat  numbers,  and 
appealed  to  the  membership  of  the  churches  for  sup- 
port. This  produced  a  little  friction  Avith  the  regular 
denominational  organs  for  carrying  on  aggressive  oper- 
ations. A  conflict  between  the  two  systems  could  not 
be  avoided.  Many  persons  objected  to  supporting  the 
voluntary  societies  from  fear  of  their  disseminating  the 
X  New  England  or  New  Haven  theology,  which  was  not 
strictly  Calvinistic,  so  the  question  of  doctrine  l)e- 
came  prominently  concerned  in  the  controversy.  Un- 
der the  "Plan  of  Union"  entered  into  with  the  Con- 
gregationalists in  1801,  delegates  from  that  church  were 
allowed  to  deliberate  and  vote  in  the  General  Assend)ly. 
This  began  to  show  itself  to  l)e  highly  inexpedient  in 
view   of  the   subjects  which    were  coming  before  the 

'  church.  For  this*  reason,  therefore,  the  General  As- 
sembly withdrew  from  "the  agi-eement"  with  the  Con- 
gregationalists. This,  however,  did  not  settle  the 
trouble  ;  for  there  was  a  difference  among  the  Pres- 
byterians themselves.     An  "Old  School"  party  and  a 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  198 

"New  School"  had  developed,  the  "New  School"  sym- 
pathizing mth  the  New  Haven  theology.  Albert  Barnes 
of  Philadelphia  and  Lyman  Beecher  of  Cincinnati,  prom- 
inent leaders  of  the  New  School  element,  were  sub- 
jected to  trials  in  their  respective  Presbyteries  for  their 
doctrinal  views,  but  Avere  vindicated  by  the  General 
Assembly.  The  movement  for  the  abolition  of  African 
slavery  now  came  to  the  front,  and  intensified  the  an- 
tagonisms in  the  church,  the  Old  School  party  being 
more  conservative  in  its  vieAvs  of  that  and  other  ques- 
tions. Their  leaders  set  forth  charges  against  the  New 
School  party  in  a  document  of  great  ability,  dra^vai  up 
by  Dr.  Eobert  J.  Breckenridge ,  and  called  the  "Act 
and  Testimony."  This  was  answered  by  the  other  side 
in  a  strong  rejoinder,  called  the  "Auburn  Declaration." 
In  the  year  1837,  when  the  General  Assembly  met, 
the  Old  School  party  foimd  itself,  for  only  tlie  second 
time  in  seven  years,  in  the  majority.  They  believed 
that  the  time  had  come  for  decisive  measures,  which 
they  proceeded  to  carry  out  in  the^abrogation  of  the 
Plan  of  Union  as  unconstitutional  and  void.^'  They 
took  the  ground  that  the  congregations  organized  under 
the  Plan  were  not  entitled  to  meml)ership  in  the  Pres- 
byterian church,  and  the  Assembl}'  disowned  tlie 
Synod  of  the  Western  Keserve  in  Ohio,  and  the  Synods 
of  Geneva,  Genessee  and  Utica  in  New  York,  in  which 
most  of  the  "mixed  churches"  were  situated.  The  New 
School  members  resisted  these  measures,  but  uusuc- 
cessfully.  The  next  year  when  the  Assembly  convened 
it  was  found  tliat  the  Presbyteries  of  the  four  exscinded 
S^^nods  had  disregarded  the  act  of  the  last  Assembly 
and  sent  up  their  full  number  of  commissioners.     But 


194  ^HE  pjeople's  history 

tliey  were  refused  seats  in  the  body,  wliereupon  tliey 
and  many  others  effected  an  organization  of  their  ovm, 
and  elected  Dr.  Samnel  Fisher  moderator.  This  com- 
pleted the  disniption,  though  the  subject  was  kept  be- 
fore the  pul)lic  for  a  long  time  by  a  lawsuit  for  the 
property,  which  was  at  first  decided  in  favor  of  the 
New  School,  then,  on  appeal,  in  favor  of  the  Old 
School.  The  matter  was  settled  l)y  the  suit  being 
withdra-v^Ti,  each  party  keeping  the  property  which  it 
held  at  the  time. 

Before  this  division  occurred  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  the  United  States  had  groAvn  to  be  a  power- 
ful organization,  conducting  many  useful  agencies  for 
good  both  at  home  and  abroad.  The  number  of  com- 
municants in  1837  was  220,557.  In  1839  the  Presby- 
teries reported  to  their  respective  Assemblies — Old  and 
New  School,  232,583  communicants,  of  which  number 
120,583  belonged  to  the  former  and  100,000  to  the 
latter  body,  representing  altogether  about  one  millicni 
adherents,  distributed  throughout  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  land. 

This  division,  which  separated  the  church  into  nearly 
equal  parts,  the  Old  School  being  somewhat  in  the 
majority,  caused  a  great  deal  of  controversy  and  bit- 
ter feeling  throughout  the  country.  Those  who  led 
the  fray  on  either  side  were  men  of  great  intellectual 
and  dialectic  power,  as  well  as  strong  convictions,  and 
the  contest  enlisted  the  interest  of  all  thoughtful 
people. 

Both  churches  gi-ew  and  accomplished  much  good 
for  the  nation,  though  the  Old  School  increased  more  rap- 
idly in  numbers  than  the  New.    But  as  time  passed  on, 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  195 

the  two  bodies  of  Presbyterians,  laboring  side  by  side,  be- 
came more  friendly,  and  tlie  old  animosities  began  to 
pass  away.  Meanwhile  another  and  graver  controvers}' 
was  arising,  not  only  in  the  churches,  but  in  the  na- 
tion— ^one  which  was  destined  to  array  the  Northern 
and  Southern  States  against  one  another  on  the  field 
of  war,  costing  the  lives  of  a  million  of  men,  the  ex- 
penditure of  incalculable  treasure,  and  causing  the  dis- 
ruption of  nearly  all  the  churches  of  Christ  in  the 
country. 


CHAPTEE  XXIY. 

The  Great  Disruption  in  Church  and  Nation. 

THE  most  thrilling  events  in  the  history  of  Amer- 
ica are  those  connected  with  the  great  War  of 
Secession.  The  controversy  ont  of  which  this  terrible 
conflict  came  as  its  final  resnlt  was  as  old  as  the  nation 
itself.  The  question  was  as  to  the  relative  powers  of 
the  national  government,  and  those  of  the  governments 
of  the  individual  States.  Southern  men  contended 
generally  that  each  State  had  all  power  in  itself,  except 
what  was  expressly  given  the  national  government  in 
the  Federal  constitution.  Most  Northern  statesmen 
inclined  to  give  greater  autliority  to  the  national  gov- 
ernment than  the  Southerners  were  willing  to  concede. 

Such  a  question  could  not  remain  long  a  matter  of 
theoretical  disciission.  It  was  bound  to  become  practi- 
cal. Any  important  matter  of  administration,  in  which 
the  interests  of  a  State,  or  a  number  of  States,  were 
brought  into  conflict  with  the  sc^ntiment  of  the  nation, 
would  biing  it  into  the  sphere  of  practical  politics,  and 
the  question,  with  regard  to  that  particular  issue,  would 
have  to  l)e  settled. 

The  question  of  "States'  rights"  took  a  practical 
shape,  and  assumed  national  importance  in  the  anti- 
slavery  agitati(^n.  The  issue  was  whether  the  several 
States,  or  the  Federal  government,  had  jurisdiction 
196 


THE  PEOrLE's  HISTOKY  OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.         197 

over  the  institution  of  slavery,  and  whether  slavery 
could  be  extended  into  Territories  not  yet  organized  as 
States.  On  this  the  Union  was  ruptured,  and  the 
Southern  States  seceded.  Then  followed  the  terrible 
war  of  secession.  Slavery  Avas  finally  abolished  by  the 
general  government,  and  the  attempt  to  set  up  a  sep- 
arate nation,  called  the  "Confederate  States  of  Amer- 
ica," was  a  failure.  Thus  the  great  question  Avas  solved 
in  favor  of  the  Federal  government,  and  against  the 
rights  of  a  State  in  the  matter  of  slavery,  and  also  its 
right  to  secede ;  and  the  results  of  the  war  Avere  made 
permanent  in  the  form  of  amendments  to  the  Federal 
constitution. 

The  temporary  disruption  of  the  nation  Avould  nec- 
7  essarily  produce  the  same  result  in  the  churches,  AA'hich 
were  not  confined  to  one  section  of  the  country.  It 
Avould  be  impossible  to  hold  any  general  intercourse, 
or  for  the  highest  ecclesiastical  courts  to  meet,  AA'hile 
the  land  was  di Added  in  tAvain  by  a  line  of  battle,  along 
Avhich  contending  armies  fought  Avith  a  courage  and  de- 
termination never  surpassed  in  the  annals  of  Avar.  But 
this  Avas  not  all  that  divided  the  churches,  or  they 
Avould  immediately  have  come  together  again  at  the  close 
of  the  conflict.  Great  questions  had  arisen  in  their 
Assemblies  groAving  out  of  the  national  controversies, 
and  they  could  not  be  settled  by  the  appeal  to  arms. 
If  nothing  but  a  theory  of  civil  government  had  been 
involved,  or  a  matter  of  mere  administration,  the 
churches  Avould  liaA^e  gone  on  their  Avay  in  peace.  But 
the  question  of  slavery  Avas  involved  in  the  struggle, 
and  many  good  men  in  all  churches  differed  as  to 
AAdiether  it  Avas  right  or  Avrong,   expedient  or  inexpe- 


198  THE  people's  history 

client;  whetlier,  if  it  were"" wrong,  it  came  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  several  States  or  the  nation  ;  and 
finally,  as  to 'whether  a  church  court  had  the  right  to 
take  cognizance  of  the  matter  at  all,  or  of  secession, 
both  of  them  falling  into  the  sphere  of  politics.  This 
last  question  divided  the  Presbyterian  churches,  Old 
and  New  School. 

The  first  disruption  occurred  in  the  New  School 
church  long  before  the  secession  of  the  Southern 
States.  In  1856,  and  again  in  1857,  the  New  School 
General  Assembly  adopted  resolutions  in  sympathy 
with  the  anti-slavery  agitation.  In  consequence  of  this 
action  several  Southern  Presbyteries  withdrew  and 
formed  the  "United  Synod  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church,"  afterwards  called  the  "  United  Synod  of  the 
South." 

In  the  Spring  of  1861  the  war  began,  and  the  coun- 
try was  thrown  into  a  state  of  alarm  and  confusion.  In 
various  coiu'ts  of  the  Old  and  New  School  churches, 
and  especiall}^  in  both  General  AssembHes,  a  sharp 
controversy  had  been  waged  with  growing  intensity  for 
a  long  time  on  the  burning  questions  that  convulsed 
the  nation.  Without  going  fully  into  the  history  of 
this  memorable  debate,  it  may  be  sufficient  to  give  the 
principal  acts  of  the  General  Assemblies  in  the  year 
1861.  These  Avill  show  the  drift  of  opinion  and  the 
state  of  feeling  in  the  churches  at  that  time. 

In  the  New  School  General  Assembly  the  following 
paper,  the  repoi-t  of  a  "  Special  Committee,  on  the  State 
of  the  Country,"  was  adopted : 

"  Whereas,  A  portion  of  the  people  of  the  United 
States  of  America  have  risen  up   against  the  rightful 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  199 

authority  of  the  government,  have  instituted  what  they 
call  '  The  Confederate  States  of  America,'  in  the  name 
and  defence  of  which  they  have  made  war  against  the 
United  States,  have  seized  the  property  of  the  Federal 
government,  have  assailed  and  overpowered  its  troops 
engaged  in  the  discharge  of  their  duty,  and  are  now  in 
armed  rebellion  against  it ;  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  of  the  United  States  of  America 
cannot  forbear  to  express  their  amazement  at  the 
wickedness  of  such  proceedings,  and  at  the  bold  advo- 
cacy and  defence  thereof,  not  only  in  those  States  in 
which  the  ordinances  of  '  Secession'  have  been  passed, 
but  in  several  others ;  and 

"  Whereas,  The  General  Assembly,  in  the  language  of 
the  Synod  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  Eevolutionary  War,  'being  met  at  a  time 
when  public  affairs  wear  so  threatening  an  aspect,  and 
when  ( unless  God  in  his  sovereign  providence  speedily 
prevents  it)  all  the  horrors  of  civil  war  are  to  be  ap- 
prehended, are  of  the  opinion  that  they  cannot  dis- 
charge their  duty  to  the  numerous  congregations  under 
their  care  without  addressing  them  at  this  important 
crisis ;  and  as  a  firm  belief  and  habitual  recognition  of 
the  living  God  ought  at  all  times  to  possess  the  minds 
of  real  Christians,  so  in  seasons  of  public  calamity, 
when  the  Lord  is  known  by  the  judgments  which  He 
executeth,  it  would  be  an  ignorance  or  indifference 
highly  criminal  not  to  look  up  to  Him  with  reverence, 
to  implore  His  mercy  by  humble  and  fervent  prayer, 
and,  if  possible,  to  prevent  His  vengeance  by  unfeigned 
repentance ;'  therefore 

^'Resolved,  1,  That   inasmuch   as  the  Presbyterian 


200  THE  PEOrLE's  HISTORY 

Church  in  her  past  history  has  frequently  Hftecl  up  her 
voice  against  oppression,  and  has  shown  herself  a 
champion  of  constitutional  lihei-ty,  as  against  both  des- 
p<^tisni  and  anarchy  throughout  the  civilized  world,  we 
should  he  recreant  to  our  high  trust  were  we  to  with- 
hold our  earnest  protest  against  all  such  unlawful  and 
treasonable  acts. 

^' Itesolved,  2,  That  this  Assembly  and  the  churches 
which  it  represents,  cherish  an  undiminished  attach- 
ment to  the  great  principles  of  civil  and  religious  free- 
dom on  which  our  national  government  is  based, 
unchn'  the  influence  of  which  our  fathers  prayed  and 
fought  and  liled,  which  issued  in  the  establishment  of 
our  independence,  by  the  preservation  of  which  we  be- 
lieve that  the  common  interests  of  evangelical  religion 
and  civil  lil)ei'ty  will  be  most  effectually  sustained. 

"  Iiesolreil,  3,  That  inasmuch  as  we  believe,  accord- 
ing to  our  form  of  government,  that  '  God,  the  Supreme 
Lord  and  king  of  all  the  world,  hath  orcLained  civil 
magistrates  to  be,  under  Him,  over  the  people  for  his 
own  glory  and  for  the  public  good,  and  to  this  end 
hath  armed  them  with  the  power  of  the  sword  for  th(^ 
defence  and  encouragement  of  them  that  are  good  and 
for  the  punishment  of  evil-doers,'  there  is,  in  the  judg- 
ment of  this  Assembly,  no  blood  or  treasure  too  precious 
to  lie  devoted  to  the  defence  and  perpetuity  of  the  gov- 
ernment in  all  its  constitutional  authority. 

"  h*eM>Jred,  4,  That  all  those  who  are  endeavoring  t(^ 
uphold  the  constitution  and  maintain  the  government 
of  these  United  States  in  the  exercise  of  its  lawful  pre- 
rogatives, are  entitled  to  the  sympathy  and  support  of 
christian  and  law-abiding  citizens. 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  201 

^^  Hesolved,  5,  That  it  be  recommended  to  all  our 
pastors  a,nd  cliurclies  to  be  instant  and  fervent  in 
prayer  for  the  President  of  the  United  States  and  all 
in  authority  under  him,  that  wisdom  and  strength  may 
be  given  them  in  tlie  discharge  of  their  arduous  duties ; 
for  the  Congress  of  the  United  States ;  for  the  lieu- 
tenant-general commanding  the  army-in -chief,  and 
all  our  soldiers,  that  God  may  shield-  them  from  dan- 
ger in  the  hour  of  peril,  and  by  the  outpouring  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  upon  the  army  and  naA\y,  renew  and  sanc- 
tify them  so  that,  whether  living  or  dying,  they  may 
be  the  servants  of  the  Most  High. 

"  Resolved,  6,  That  in  the  countenance  which  many 
ministers  of  the  gospel  and  other  professing  christians 
are  noAv  giving  to  treason  and  rebellion  against  the  gov- 
ernment, we  have  great  occasion  to  mourn  for  the  injury 
thus  done  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Redeemer,  and  that, 
though  we  have  nothing  to  add  to  our  former  significant 
and  explicit  testimonials  on  the  subject  of  slavery,  we  yet 
recommend  our  people  to  pray  more  fervently  than 
ever  for  the  removal  of  this  evil,  and  all  others,  both 
social  and  political,  which  lie  at  the  fecundation  of  our 
present  national  difficulties. 

''  Besolved,  7,  That  a  copy  of  these  resolutions,  signed 
by  the  officers  of  the  General  Assembly  be  forwarded 
to  His  Excellency  Abraham  Lincoln,  President  of  the 
United  States." 

"Immediately  upon  the  adoption  of  this  report  the 
Assembly  united  in  fervent  prayer  for  the  country  and 
its  rulers." 

In  the  Old  School  General  Assembly,  in  session  at 
Philadelphia  about  the  same  time.  May,  1861,  occurred 
17 


202  THE  teople's  history. 

a  severe  conflict,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following 
paper,  offered  by  Rev.  Gardiner  Spring,  D.  D.,  of  New 
York,  by  the  substitute  proposed  for  it  by  Rev.  Charles 
Hodge,  D.  D.,  of  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  and  by  the 
protest  recorded  by  Dr.  Hodge  and  others.  The  open- 
ing sermon,  by  Rev.  Dr.  Yeomans,  was  from  the  text, 
"My  kingdom  is  not  of  this  world,"  (John  xviii.  36.) 
Only  sixteen  commissioners  were  present  from  the 
South. 

On  motion  of  Dr.  Spring,  the  famous  "  Spring  Reso- 
olutions  "  were  adopted,  as  follows : 

"  Gratefull}^  acknowledging  the  bounty  and  care  of 
Almighty  God  toward  this  favored  land,  and  also  recog- 
nizing our  obligations  to  submit  to  every  ordinance  of 
man  for  the  Lord's  sake,  this  General  Assembly  adopts 
the  follo\nng  resolutions : 

'''■Resolved,  1,  That  in  view  of  the  present  agitated 
and  unhappy  condition  of  this  country,  the  4tli  da}^  of 
July  next  be  hereby  set  apart  as  a  day  of  prayer 
throughout  our  bounds,  and  that  on  this  day  ministers 
and  people  are  called  on  humbly  to  confess  and  be- 
wail our  national  sins ;  to  offer  our  thanks  to  the 
Father  of  lights  for  His  abundant  and  undeserved 
goodness  towards  us  as  a  nation ;  to  seek  His  guidance 
and  blessing  upon  our  rulers  and  their  counsels,  as 
well  as  the  then  assembled  Congress  of  the  United 
States;  and  to  implore  Him  in  the  name  of  Jesus 
Christ,  the  great  Head  of  the  christian  profession,  to 
turn  away  his  anger  from  us  and  speedily  restore  to  us 
the  blessings  of  a  safe  and  honorable  peace. 

Resolved,  2,  That  this  General  Assembly,  in  the 
spirit  of  that  christian  patriotism  which  the  Scriptures 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM  203 

enjoin,  and  which  has  always  characterized  this  church, 
do  hereby  acknowledge  and  declare  our  obligation  to 
promote  and  perpetuate,  as  far  as  in  us  lies,  the  integ- 
rity of  these  United  States,  and  to  strengthen,  uphold 
and  encourage  the  Federal  government  in  the  exercise 
of  all  its  functions  under  our  noble  constitution,  and 
to  this  constitution,  in  all  its  provisions,  requirements 
and  principles,  we  profess  our  unabated  loyalty.  And 
to  avoid  all  misconception,  the  Assembly  declares  that 
by  the  term  "Federal  government,"  as  here  used,  is 
not  meant  any  particular  administration,  or  the 
peculiar  opinions  of  any  political  party,  but  that  cen- 
tral administration  which,  being  at  any  time  appointed 
and  inaugurated  according  to  the  terms  perscribed  in 
the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  is  the  visible  rep- 
resentative of  our  national  existence." 

For  this  resolution  Dr.  Charles  Hodge  offered  the 
following  substitute :  "  The  unhappy  contest  in  which 
the  country  is  now  involved  has  brought  both  the 
church  and  the  State  face  to  face  with  questions  of 
patriotism  and  of  morals,  which  are  without  a  parallel 
in  this  or  any  other  land.  True  to  their  hereditary 
principles,  the  ministers  and  elders  present  in  the  As- 
sembly have  met  the  emergency  by  the  most  decisive 
proof  in  their  respective  social  and  civil  relations  of 
their  firm  devotion  to  the  constitution  and  laws  under 
which  we  live ;  and  they  are  ready,  at  all  suitable  times 
and  at  whatever  personal  sacrifice,  to  testify  their  loy- 
alty to  that  constitution  under  which  '  this  goodly  vine 
has  sent  out  her  boughs  unto  the  sea,  and  her  branches 
unto  the  river.' 

"  For  the  following  reasons,  the  Assembly  deem  it 


204  THE  TEOrLE's  HISTORY 

impossible  to  put  forth,  at  the  present  time,  a  more  ex- 
tended and  emphatic  deliverance  upon  the  subject,  to 
wit : 

"1.  The  General  Assembly  is  neither  a  Northern 
nor  a  Southern  body  ;  it  comprehends  the  entire  Pres- 
byterian Church,  irrespective  of  geographical  lines  or 
pohtical  opinions  ;  and  had  it  met  this  year,  as  it  does 
with  marked  uniformity  one-half  of  the  time,  in  some 
Southern  city,  no  one  would  have  presumed  to  ask 
of  it  a  fuller  declaration  of  its  views  upon  this  subject 
than  it  has  embodied  in  this  minute. 

"  2.  Owing  to  providential  hindrances,  nearly  one- 
third  of  our  Presbyteries  are  not  represented  at  our 
present  meeting;  they  feel  that  not  only  Christian 
courtesy,  but  common  justice,  requires  that  we  should 
refrain,  except  in  the  presence  of  some  stringent  neces- 
sity, from  adopting  measures  to  bind  the  consciences 
of  our  brethren,  who  are  absent,  most  of  them,  we  be- 
lieve, by  no  fault  of  their  own. 

"3.  Such  has  been  the  course  of  events,  that  all  the 
other  evangelical  denominations  have  been  rent  asun- 
der. We  alone  retain,  this  day,  the  proportions  of 
a  national  church.  We  are  happily  united  among 
ourselves  on  all  questions  of  doctrine  and  discipline. 
The  dismemberment  of  our  church,  while  fraught  Avith 
disaster  to  all  our  spiritual  interests,  could  not  fail 
to  envenom  the  political  animosities  of  the  coun- 
try, and  to  augment  the  sorrows  which  already  op- 
press us.  We  are  not  willing  to  sever  this  last  bond 
which  holds  the  North  and  South  together  in  the  fel- 
lowship of  the  gospel.  Should  an  all-wise  Providence 
hereafter  exact  this  sacrifice,  we  shall  be  resigned  to 


OF  PRESBYTEBIANISM.  205 

it ;  but  for  the  present,  both  religion  and  patriotism 
require  us  to  cherish  a  union  which,  by  God's  bless- 
ing, may  be  tlie  means  of  re-uniting  our  land." 

The  debate  on  these  two  papers  was  earnest,  and  at 
times  highly  excited  ;  but  the  substitute  of  Dr.  Hodge 
was  lost,  and  Dr.  Spring's  resolution  adopted  by  a  vote 
of  one  hundred  and  fifty-four  to  sixty-six.  Dr.  Hodge 
and  forty-five  others  pres  ented  against  this  action  a  pro- 
test, from  which  an  extract  is  appended. 

The  protest  declared,  "  That  the  paper  adopted  by 
the  Assembly  does  decide  the  political  question  just 
stated,  in  our  judgment,  is  undeniable.  It  not  only 
asserts  the  loyalty  of  this  body  to  the  constitution  and 
Union,  but  it  promises,  in  the  name  of  all  the  churches 
and  ministers  whom  it  represents,  to  do  all  that  in 
them  lies  to  strengthen,  uphold  and  encourage  the  Fed- 
eral government.  It  is,  however,  a  notorious  fact  that 
man}^  of  our  ministers  and  members  conscientiously 
believe  that  the  allegiance  of  the  citizens  of  this  coun- 
tr}^  is  primarily  due  to  the  States  to  which  they  re- 
spectively belong,  and  that  therefore,  whenever  any 
State  renounces  its  connection  with  the  United  States, 
and  its  allegiance  to  the  constitution,  the  citizens  of 
that  State  are  bound  by  the  laws  of  God  to  continue 
loyal  to  their  State  and  obedient  to  its  laws.  The 
paper  adopted  by  the  Assembly  virtually  declares,  on 
the  other  hand,  that  the  allegiance  of  the  citizen  is  due 
to  the  United  States,  anything  in  the  constitution  or 
laws  of  the  several  States  to  the  contrary  notwithstand- 
ing  The  General  Assembly,  in  thus  decid- 
ing a  political  question,  and  in  making  that  decision 
practically  a  condition  of  church  membership,  has,  in 


20G  THE  people's  history 

onr  judgment  violated  the  constitution  of  tlie  cliurcli, 
and  usurped  the  prerogative  of  its  divine  Master." 

On  December  4,  1861,  the  Southern  Presbyteries, 
by  their  representatives,  organized,  in  Augusta, 
Georgia,  the  "General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  Confederate  States  of  America,"  con- 
sisting of  ninety-three  ministers  and  ruling  elders. 
Rev.  B.  M.  Palmer,  D.  D.,  presided  as  moderator,  and 
preached  an  opening  sermon  on  Ephesians  i.  22-23. 
"And  gave  Him  to  be  head  over  all  things  to  the 
church,  which  is  His  body,  the  fulness  of  Him  that 
fiUeth  all  in  aU." 

The  organization  of  the  church  was  completed  and 
the  Wef?tminster  Confession  of  Faith  and  other  stand- 
ards of  the  old  church  adopted,  merely  substituting  the 
term  "Confederate  States"  for  "United  States" 
wherever  it  occurred.  The  new  body  being  fully  in 
sympathy  mth  the  Confederate  States,  adopted  a  reso- 
lution as  follows : 

"  Resolved^  That  this  General  Assembly  will  spend 
the  next  half-hour,  which  is  appointed  for  devotional 
exercises,  in  prayer  to  Almighty  God  for  His  blessing 
upon  these  Confederate  States,  and  especially  upon 
the  officers  and  soldiers  of  our  armies  avIio  are  exposed 
to  the  dangers  and  temptations  of  the  battle  field  and 
the  camp."     (Minutes  1861,  p.  11.) 

In  accordance  wdth  this  order  "  the  Assembly  met  and 
spent  the  first  half-hour  in  special  prayer  for  the  bless- 
ing of  God  upon  the  cause  of  the  Confederate  States, 
according  to  previous  order."     (Minutes,  p.  12.) 

At  the  next  meeting  of  the  General  Assembly,  the 
foUomng  was   adopted :      "  The  relation  of  our   con- 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  207 

gregations  to  the  great  struggle  m  ichich  ice  are  engaged. 
All  of  tlie  Presbyterial  narratives,  Avitliont  exception, 
mention  the  fact  that  their  congregations  have  evinced 
the  most  cordial  sympathy  with  the  people  of  the  Con- 
federate States  in  their  efforts  to  maintain  their  cher- 
ished rights  and  institutions  against  the  despotic  power 
which  is  attempting  to  crush  them.  Deeply  convinced 
that  this  struggle  is  not  alone  for  civil  rights,  and  pro- 
perty, and  home,  but  also  for  religion,  for  the  church, 
for  the  gospel,  and  for  existence  itself,  the  churches  in 
our  connection  have  freely  contributed  to  its  prosecu- 
tion of  their  substance,  their  prayers,  and,  above  all,  of 
their  members  and  the  beloved  youth  of  their  congre- 
gations. They  have  parted,  without  a  murmur,  with 
those  who  constitute  the  hope  of  the  church,  and  have 
bidden  them  go  forth  to  the  support  of  this  great  and 
sacred  cause  with  their  benedictions,  and  their  suppli- 
cations for  their  protection  and  success.  The  Assembly 
desires  to  record,  with  its  solemn  approval,  this  fact  of 
the  unanimity  of  our  people  in  supporting  a  contest  to 
which  religion,  as  well  as  patriotism,  now  summons  the 
citizens  of  this  country,  and  to  implore  for  them  the 
blessing  of  God  in  the  course  they  are  now  pursuing." 
(Narrative  of  1862,  p.  21.) 

The  "  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  the  Confederate  States  of  America,"  at  its  first  meet- 
ing in  Augusta,  Georgia,  adopted  an  address  to  all 
christian  churches  throughout  the  world,  which  gives 
not  only  the  history  of  the  organization  of  that  Assem- 
bly but  also  furnishes  an  insight  into  the  dift'erences 
between  the  two  great  parties  of  that  day.  The  follow- 
ing extracts  contain  the  main  points  of  the  ''Address  :" 


208  THE  people's  history 

"Augusta,  Ga.,  Decemher,  1861. 

"  The  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  the  Confederate  States  of  America  to  all  the  churches 
of  Jesus  Christ  throughout  the  earth,  greeting :  Grace, 
mercy  and  peace  be  multiplied  upon  you. 

"Dearly  Beloved  Brethren:  It  is  probably  known 
to  3'ou  that  the  Presb}i;eries  and  Synods  in  the  Confed- 
erate States,  which  were  formerly  in  connection  with 
the  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
the  United  States  of  America,  have  renounced  the  juris- 
diction of  that  body,  and  dissolved  the  ties  which  boimd 
them  ecclesiastically  \di\\  their  brethren  of  the  North. 

"We  have  separated  from  our  brethren  of  the  North 
as  Abraham  separated  from  Lot — because  we  are  per- 
suaded that  the  interests  of  true  religion  A^ill  be  more 
effectually  subserved  by  two  independent  churches,  un- 
der the  circumstances  in  which  the  two  countries  are 
placed,  than  by  one  united  body. 

"1.  In  the  first  place,  the  course  of  the  last  Assem- 
bly, at  Philadelphia,  conclusively  shows  that,  if  we 
should  remain  together,  the  political  questions  which 
divide  us  as  citizens  will  be  obtruded  on  our  Church 
courts,  and  discussed  by  christian  ministers  and  elders, 
with  all  the  acrimony,  bitterness  and  rancour  with 
which  such  questions  are  usually  discussed  by  men  of 
tlie  world. 

"The  only  conceivable  condition,  therefore,  upon 
which  the  Church  of  the  North  and  the  South  could 
remain  together  as  one  body,  with  any  prospect  of  sue- 


OP  PEESBYTERIANISM.  209 

cess,  is  the  rigorous  exclusion  of  the  questions  and  pas- 
sions of  the  forum  from  its  halls  of  debate.  This  is 
what  always  ought  to  be  done.  The  provinces  of  church 
and  state  are  perfectly  distinct,  and  the  one  has  no  right 
to  usurp  the  jurisdiction  of  the  other.  The  state  is  a 
natural  institute,  founded  in  the  constitution  of  man  as 
moral  and  social,  and  designed  to  realize  the  idea  of 
justice.  It  is  the  society  of  rights.  The  church  is  a 
supernatural  institute,  founded  in  the  facts  of  redemp- 
tion, and  is  designed  to  realize  the  idea  of  grace.  It  is 
the  society  of  the  redeemed.  The  state  aims  at  social 
order,  the  church  at  spiritual  hohness.  The  state  looks 
to  the  visible  and  outward,  the  church  is  concerned  for 
the  invisible  and  inward.  The  badge  of  the  state's  au- 
thorit}'  is  the  sword,  by  which  it  becomes  a  terror  to  evil- 
doers, and  a  praise  to  them  that  do  well.  The  badge 
of  the  church's  authority  is  the  keys,  by  which  it  opens 
and  shuts  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  according  as  men  are 
believing  or  impenitent.  The  power  of  the  church  is 
exclusively  spiritual,  that  of  the  state  includes  the  ex- 
ercise of  force.  The  constitution  of  the  church  is  a 
divine  revelation ;  the  constitution  of  the  state  must  be 
determined  by  human  reason  and  the  course  of  provi- 
dential events.  The  church  has  no  right  to  construct 
or  modify  a  government  for  the  state,  and  the  state  has 
no  right  to  frame  a  creed  or  polity  for  the  church.  They 
are  as  planets  moving  in  different  orbits,  and  unless 
each  is  confined  to  its  own  track,  the  consequences  may 
be  as  disastrous  in  the  moral  world  as  the  collision  of 
different  spheres  in  the  Avorld  of  matter.  It  is  true  that 
there  is  a  point  at  which  their  respective  jurisdictions 
seem  to  meet — in  the  idea  of  ctuty.     But  even  duty  is 


210  THE  people's  HISTOIIY 

viewed  by  each  in  very  different  lights.  The  church 
enjoins  it  as  obedience  to  God,  and  the  state  enforces 
it  as  the  safeguard  of  order.  But  there  can  be  no  colh- 
sion,  unless  one  or  the  other  blunders  as  to  the  things 
that  are  materially  right.  When  the  state  makes  mcked 
laAvs,  contradicting  the  eternal  principles  of  rectitude, 
the  church  is  at  liberty  to  testify  against  them;  and 
humbly  to  petition  that  they  may  be  repealed.  In  hke 
manner,  if  the  church  becomes  seditious  and  a  disturber 
of  the  peace,  the  state  has  a  right  to  abate  the  nuisance. 
In  ordinary  cases,  however,  there  is  not  likely  to  be  a 
collision.  Among  a  christian  people,  there  is  little  dif- 
ference of  opinion  as  to  the  radical  distinctions  of  right 
and  \\Tong.  The  only  serious  danger  is  where  moral 
duty  is  conditioned  upon  a  political  question.  Under 
the  pretext  of  inculcating  duty,  the  church  may  usurp 
the  power  to  determine  the  question  Avhich  conditions 
it,  and  that  is  precisely  what  she  is  debarred  fi'om  doing. 
The  condition  must  be  given.  She  must  accept  it  from 
the  state,  and  then  her  own  course  is  clear.  If  Ca?sar 
is  your  master,  then  pay  tribute  to  him ;  but  whether 
the  'if  holds,  whether  Caesar  is  your  master  or  not 
whether  he  ever  had  any  just  authority,  whether  he  now 
retains  it,  or  has  forfeited  it,  these  are  points  which  the 
church  has  no  commission  to  adjudicate. 

"If  it  is  desirable  that  each  nation  should  contain  a 
separate  and  an  independent  church,  the  Presbyteries 
of  these  Confederate  States  need  no  apology  for  boAving 
to  the  decree  of  Providence,  which,  in  -withdrawing 
their  country  from  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  has  at  the  same  time  determined  that  they  should 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  211 

withdraw  from  the  church  of  their  fathers.  It  is  not 
that  they  have  ceased  to  love  it — not  that  they  have 
abjured  its  ancient  principles,  or  forgotten  its  glorious 
history. 

"  The  antagonism  of  the  Northern  and  Southern  sen- 
timent on  the  subject  of  slavery  lies  at  the  root  of  all 
the  difficulties  which  have  resulted  in  the  dismember- 
ment of  the  Federal  Union,  and  involved  us  in  the  hor- 
rors of  an  unnatural  war.  The  Presbyterian  Church  in 
the  United  States  has  been  enabled  by  the  divine  grace 
to  pursue,  for  the  most  part,  an  eminently  conservative, 
because  a  thoroughly  scriptural,  policy  in  relation  to 
this  delicate  question.  It  has  planted  itself  upon  the 
Word  of  God,  and  utterly  refused  to  make  slave-holding 
a  sin,  or  non-slave-holding  a  term  of  communion.  But 
though  both  sections  are  agreed  as  to  this  general  prin- 
ciple, it  is  not  to  be  disguised  that  the  North  exercises 
a  deep  and  settled  antipathy  to  slavery  itself,  while  the 
South  is  equally  zealous  in  its  defence.  Recent  events 
can  have  no  other  effect  than  to  confirm  the  antipathy 
on  the  one  hand,  and  to  strengthen  the  attachment  on 
the  other. 

"And  here  we  may  venture  to  lay  before  the  chris- 
tian world  our  views  as  a  church  upon  the  subject  of 
slavery.     We  beg  a  candid  hearing. 

"  In  the  first  place,  we  would  have  it  distinctly  under- 
stood that,  in  our  ecclesiastical  capacity,  we  are  neither 
the  friends  nor  the  foes  of  slavery ;  that  is  to  say,  we 
have  no  commission  either  to  propagate  or  abolish  it. 
The  policy  of  its  existence  or  non-existence  is  a  ques- 


212  THE  people's  history 

tion  wliicli  exclusively  belongs  to  the  state.  We  have 
no  right,  as  a  church,  to  enjoin  it  as  a  duty,  or  to  con- 
demn it  as  sin.  Oiir  business  is  with  the  duties  that 
spring  from  the  relation :  the  duties  of  the  masters  on 
the  one  hand,  and  of  their  slaves  on  the  other.  These 
duties  we  are  to  proclaim  and  to  enforce  with  spiritual 
sanctions.  The  social,  civil,  political  problems  con- 
nected Avitli  this  great  subject  transcend  our  sphere,  as 
God  has  not  entrusted  to  his  church  the  organization 
of  society,  the  construction  of  governments,  nor  the 
allotment  of  individuals  to  their  various  stations.  The 
church  has  as  much  right  to  preach  to  the  monarchies 
of  Europe  and  the  despotisms  of  Asia  the  doctrines  of 
republican  equality  as  to  preach  to  the  governments  of 
the  South  the  extirpation  of  slaveiy.  This  position  is 
impregnable,  unless  it  can  be  shown  that  slavery  is  a 
sin. 

"Now  we  venture  to  asseii,  that  if  men  had  drawn 
their  conclusions  upon  this  subject  only  from  the  Bible, 
it  would  no  more  have  entered  into  any  human  head  to 
denounce  slavery  as  a  sin  than  to  denounce  monarchy, 
aristocracy,  or  poverty. 

"We  feel  that  the  souls  of  our  slaves  are  a  solemn 
trust,  and  we  shall  strive  to  present  them  faultless  and 
complete  before  the  presence  of  God. 

"Indeed,  as  we  contemplate  their  condition  in  the 
Southern  States,  and  contrast  it  with .  that  of  their 
fathers  before  them,  and  that  of  their  brethren  in  the 
present  day  in  their  native  land,  we  cannot  but  accept 
it  as  a  gracious  providence  that  they  have  been  brought 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  213 

in  such  numbers  to  our  shores,  and  redeemed  from  the 
bondage  of  barbarism  and  sin.  Slavery  to  them  has 
certainly  been  overruled  for  the  greatest  good.  It  has 
been  a  link  in  the  Avondrous  chain  of  Providence, 
through  which  many  sons  and  daughters  have  been 
made  heirs  of  the  heavenly  inheritance. 

"The  ends  which  we  propose  to  accomplish  as  a 
church  are  the  same  as  those  which  are  proposed  by 
every  other  church.  To  proclaim  God's  truth  as  a  wit- 
ness to  the  nations ;  to  gather  His  elect  from  the  four 
corners  of  the  earth ;  and  through  the  Word,  ministries 
and  ordinances  to  train  them  for  eternal  life,  is  the 
great  business  of  his  people.  The  only  thing  that  will 
be  at  all  peculiar  to  us,  is  the  manner  in  which  we 
shall  attempt  to  discharge  our  duty.  In  almost  every 
department  of  labor,  except  the  pastoral  care  of  con- 
gregations, it  has  been  usual  for  the  church  to  resort 
to  societies  more  or  less  closely  connected  with  itself, 
and  yet  logically  and  really  distinct.  It  is  our  purpose 
to  rely  upon  the  regular  organs  of  our  government,  and 
executive  agencies  directly  and  immediately  responsi- 
ble to  them.  We  wish  to  make  the  church  not  merely 
a  superintendent,  but  an  agent.  We  wish  to  develop 
the  idea  that  the  congregation  of  believers,  as  visibly 
organized,  is  the  very  society  or  corporation  which  is 
divinely  called  to  do  the  work  of  the  Lord. 

"We  shall,  therefore,  endeavor  to  do  what  has  never 
yet  been  adequately  done — bring  out  the  energies  of 
our  Presbyterian  system  of  government.  From  the 
Session  to  the  Assembly  we  shall  strive  to  enlist  all  our 
courts,  as  coiirts,  in  every  department  of  christian 
i8 


214      THE  people's  history  of  presbyterianism. 

effort.  We  are  not  ashamed  to  confess  tliat  we  are  in- 
tensely Presbyterian.  We  embrace  all  other  denomi- 
nations in  the  arms  of  christian  fellowship  and  love, 
but  onr  own  scheme  of  government  we  humbly  believe 
to  be  according  to  the  pattern  shown  in  the  Monnt,  and, 
by  God's  grace,  we  hope  to  put  its  efficiency  to  the  test. 

"Brethren,  we  have  done.  We  have  told  you  who 
we  are,  and  what  we  are.  We  greet  you  in  the  ties  of 
christian  brotherhood.  We  desire  to  cultivate  peace 
and  charity  ^\itli  all  our  fellow-christians  throughout 
the  world. 

"We  invite  to  ecclesiastical  communion  all  who 
maintain  our  principles  of  faith  and  order.  And  now 
we  commend  you  to  God  and  the  word  of  His  grace. 
We  devoutly  pray  that  the  whole  catholic  church  may 
be  afresh  baptized  with  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  that  she 
may  speedily  be  stirred  up  to  give  the  Lord  no  rest  until 
He  establish  and  make  Jerusalem  a  praise  in  the 
earth." 

Thus  the  great  division  was  made  in  state  and 
church.  The  civil  war  raged  for  four  years,  friends, 
and  even  brothers,  being  marshalled  against  each  other 
on  the  field.  Both  churches,  North  and  South,  labored 
to  comfort  the  afflicted,  to  call  sinners  to  Christ,  to 
bear  the  light  of  the  gospel  before  the  eyes  of  men. 
Both  made  mistakes ;  the  times  were  terrible.  The 
pathos  of  their  history  can  never  be  written.  But  they 
have  gone  ;  the  war  is  over ;  and  many  years  have 
passed  away  since  then,  leaving  blessings  behind  them. 
The  old  battle-fields  are  planted  in  wheat  and  corn,  and 
where  once  resounded  the  roar  of  cannon  and  the  clash 
of  arms,  are  now  heard  the  voices  of  reapers  gathering 
the  golden  harvests  of  peace. 


CHAPTEK  XXV. 

Amekican  Presbyterianism  After  the  War  of  Se- 
cession. 

rriHE  war  ended  in  1865,  when  General  Robert  E. 
JL  Lee  snrrrendered  to  General  U.  S.  Grant  at  Appo- 
mattox Conrthonse,  Virginia,  and  as  the  clouds  cleared 
away,  the  work  of  reconstructing  the  Union  began. 
The  name  of  the  "  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  Confede- 
rate States  of  America"  was  then  changed  to  the  "  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  the  United  States,"  the  same  as  that 
of  the  Northern  Church,  except  that  the  words  '^of 
America''  were  omitted. 

While  the  war  was  still  going  on,  a  union  was  con- 
summated between  the  "  General  Assembly  of  the  Pres- 
b}i;erian  Church  in  the  Confederate  States  of  America  " 
and  the  "  United  Synod  of  the  South."  It  will  be  re- 
called that  this  latter  body  had  been  formed  by  a  num- 
ber of  Southern  members  who  seceded  from  the  New 
School  General  Assembly,  in  1857,  on  account  of  some 
deliverances  on  the  subject  of  slavery  to  which  they  ob- 
jected. In  1863  this  "United  Synod,"  which  repre- 
sented the  New  School  element  in  the  South,  was  re- 
ceived into  the  Southern  Church.  The  basis  of  this 
union  was  a  hearty  agreement  between  the  two  bodies, 
expressed  in  a  "Declaration,"  concerning:  1,  The  fall 
of  man,  original  sin,  imputation  of  guilt,  origin  of  sin, 
215 


216  THE  people's  history 

etc. ;  2,  Concerning  regeneration ;  3,  Concerning  the 
atonement  of  Jesus  Christ ;  4,  Concerning  the  believer's 
justification ;  5,  Concerning  revivals ;  6,  Concerning 
voluntary  societies  and  the  functions  of  the  church. 
This  body  brought  to  their  new  allies  120  ministers, 
190  churches,  and  12,000  communicants.  Another  ac- 
cession was  the  Presbytery  of  Patapsco,  in  1867,  con- 
sisting of  6  ministers,  3  churches,  and  576  communi- 
cants. 

In  1869  the  Synod  of  Kentucky,  being  the  one  of  two 
bodies  covering  the  same  ground  and  bearing  the  same 
name,  in  sympathy  with  the  views  of  the  Southern 
Presbyterians,  was  received  into  their  General  Assem- 
bly. In  no  part  of  the  country  had  more  stormy 
scenes  been  enacted  in  the  trying  times  before,  dur- 
ing, and  just  after  the  Avar  than  in  Kentucky.  The 
storm  swept  the  church  as  well  as  the  state.  AYlien 
the  "  General  Assembly  of  the  Presb}i:erian  Church 
in  the  United  States"  was  formed,  in  1861,  at  Au- 
gusta, Georgia,  the  Synod  of  Kentucky  declined  to 
join  the  movement,  maintained  its  connection  with 
the  Old  Church  in  the  North,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
adopted  condemnatory  resolutions  touching  the  acts 
of  the  General  Assembly  of  1861,  saying,  the  Synod 
"regrets  that  part  of  the  action  of  the  last  Assembly 
touching  the  order  for  a  day  of  general  prayer,  which 
w^as  liable  to  be  construed,  and  was  construed,  into  a 
requisition  on  all  the  members  and  office-l)earers  of  the 
church  living  in  the  numerous  States  which  had  seceded 
from  the  United  States,  and  were  in  a  state  of  war  with 
them,  as  bound  by  christian  duty  and  by  the  authority 
of  the   church,   to   disregard  the  hostile  governments 


OF  PEESBTTERIANISM.  217 

which  had  been  established  over  them,  and,  in  defiance 
of  the  actual  authority  of  those  governments,  to  pray 
for  their  overthrow." 

In  1862  the  General  Assembly  which  had  been  thus 
criticized  condemned  this  action  of  the  Synod  of  Ken- 
tucky. 

In  1864  the  Synod  again  felt  called  upon  to  express 
its  disapproval  of  a  deliverance  of  the  General  Assem- 
bly on  the  subject  of  slavery,  but  declared  that  it  ad- 
hered with  unbroken  purpose  to  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  United  States  of  America.  In  1865  this 
debate  between  the  Synod  of  Kentucky  and  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  was  continued,  by  the  latter  body  con- 
demning the  Synod  for  having  taken  exception  to  its 
action  on  slavery.  The  fires  were  growing  warmer.  A 
formal  protest,  called  the  "Declaration  and  Tes- 
mony,"  was  published  by  those  in  several  Synods  who 
disapproved  of  the  line  of  policy  pursued  by  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  in  the  matters  referred  to  above.  In 
1865  the  Synod,  by  a  vote  of  54  to  46,  expressed  its 
disapprobation  of  the  "Declaration  and  Testimony," 
as  being  unwise,  and  having  a  tendency  to  divide 
the  church  still  more.J 

Next  spring,  1866,  the  Northern  Assembly  (Old 
School)  adopted  what  was  called  the  "Gurley  ipso 
facto  order,"  in  which  the  signers  of  the  "Declaration 
and  Testimon}^"  and  the  members  of  the  Louisville 
Presbytery  who  voted  to  adopt  that  paper,  were  re- 
quired to  appear  before  the  next  General  Assembly  to 
answer  for  their  conduct,  and  in  the  meantime  they  were 
not  to  be  allowed  to  sit  in  any  church  court  higher  than 
a  session,  and  furthermore,  it  was  declared  that  if  any 


218 

Presbytery  disregarded  this  order  and  enrolled  as  a 
member  any  one  who  had  signed  the  "  Declaration  and 
Testimony,"  that  Presbytery  should  ^^  ipso  facto ^'  be 
dissolved. 

This  order  led  to  a  rupture  of  the  Synods  of  Ken- 
tuck}^  and  Missouri  in  1866,  and  the  establishment  of 
two  independent  Synods.  Of  the  Synod  of  Kentucky, 
consisting  of  108  ministers,  32  adhered  to  the  General 
Assembly.  In  1867  the  "Declaration  and  Testimony" 
Synod  of  Kentucky,  claiming  to  have  acted  laAvfully,  de- 
clared that  the  General  Assembly  had  so  far  violated  the 
constitution  that  it  was  no  longer  an}i;hing  more  than  a 
revolutionary  and  schismatical  body.  This  closed  the 
controversy,  and  two  years  afterwards  the  Synod 
joined  the  "  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  ( Southern )  in  the  United  States,"  bringing  to 
that  body  75  ministers,  137  churches  and  13,540  com- 
municants. 

A  similar  history  was  enacted  in  the  Synod  of  Mis- 
souri, many  members  of  which  were  signers  of  the 
"  Declaration  and  Testimony,"  resulting  likewise  in  a 
division.  The  Synod  containing  the  "Declaration  and 
Testimony"  men  was  called  the  "Old  School  Synod  of 
Missouri."  This  organization  maintained  an  indepen- 
dent existence,  laboring  side  by  side  with  the  Synod 
of  Missouri  connected  mth  the  Presb}i;erian  Church 
North,  until  1874,  when  it  formally  united  with  the 
Southern  General  Assembly.  A  few  who  dissented 
from  this  action  joined  the  Northern  Assembly.  By 
this  accession  the  Southern  church  gained  67  min- 
isters, 141  churches  and  8,000  communicants. 


of  presbyterianism.  219 

Reunion  of  the  Old  and  New  School  Churches. 

The  union  of  the  Old  and  New  School  General  As- 
semblies in  the  north  was  accomplished  in  1869.  The 
movement  wdiich  resulted  in  this  consummation  began 
as  far  back  as  1849,  when  the  New  School  Assembly  ap- 
pointed fraternal  delegates  to  convey  their  cordial  greet- 
ings to  the  Old  School  Assembly.  This  courtesy,  how- 
ever, was  not  responded  to  by  the  Old  School  body, 
and  no  delegates  were  appointed  on  their  part ;  where- 
upon those  sent  from  the  New  School  church  returned 
their  commissions  and  were  discharged.  The  animosi- 
ties  of  the  past,  which  grew  out  of  doctrinal  differences, 
were,  however,  dying  away,  and  the  great  questions  of 
slavery  and  the  union  were  arising  in  the  minds  of  both 
Assemblies  so  as,  at  length,  to  obscure  all  other  issues. 
A  common  interest  in  these  great  matters  tended  to  draw 
both  churches  towards  one  another,  and  though  the 
Old  School  Assembly  declined  a  proposal  for  union 
from  one  of  its  Presbyteries  in  1850,  a  feeling  in  that 
direction  had  evidently  begun  to  manifest  itself  even 
then.  In  1862  fraternal  correspondence  was  estab- 
lished, by  the  adoption  of  an  act  to  that  effect  in  the 
Old  School  Assembly.  In  1863  this  was  cordially  re- 
sponded to  by  the  New  School  Assembly,  and  delegates 
were  exchanged  the  same  year. 

The  subject  of  reunion  w'as  formally  broached  in 
1866,  by  the  Old  School  Assembly  calling  for  a  con- 
ference of  a  joint  committee  to  consider  the  matter. 
The  sister  Assembly  cordially  concurred  in  this  pro- 
posal, and  in  1867  the  joint  committee  reported  to  both 
Assemblies  a  plan  for  the  consolidation  of  the  two  great 


220  THE  people's  history 

branches  of  the  Presbyteriau  Church  in  the  North.  But 
the  time  had  not  quite  come  for  the  reunion,  and  a  dif- 
ference of  opinion  as  to  the  basis  upon  which  lit  was  to 
be  effected  caused  the  matter  to  be  kept  in  obeyance 
for  several  years,  though  the  negotiations  Avere  con- 
tinued. In  1869  both  churches  agreed  to  the  union, 
and  each  General  Assembly  adopted  unanimously  the 
following  declaration : 

"  This  Assembly  having  received  and  examined  the 
statement  of  the  votes  of  the  several  Presbyteries  on 
the  basis  of  the  reiTuion  of  the  two  bodies  now  claiming 
the  name  and  the  right  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
the  United  States  of  America,  which  basis  is  in  the 
words  following,  namely :  '  The  union  shall  be  eft'ected 
on  the  doctrinal  and  ecclesiastical  basis  of  our  common 
standards;  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments shall  be  acknowledged  to  be  the  inspired  word  of 
God  and  the  only  infallible  rule  of  faith  and  practice ; 
the  Confession  of  Faith  shall  continue  to  be  sincerely 
received  and  adopted  as  containing  the  system  of  doc- 
trine taught  in  the  Holy  Scriptures;  and  the  govern- 
ment and  discipline  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
United  States  shall  be  approved  as  containing  the  prin- 
ciples and  i-ules  of  our  polity;'  does  hereby  find  and 
declare  that  said  basis  of  union  has  been  approved  by 
more  than  two-thirds  of  the  Presbyteries  connected 
with  this  branch  of  the  church ;  and  whereas  the  other 
branch  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States, 
now  sitting  in  the  Third  (or  ilie  F'n\st)  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  city  of  Pittslmrg,  has  reported  to  this 
Assembly  that  said  basis  has  been  approvcnl  by  more 
than  two-thirds  of  the  Presbyteries  connected  with  that 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  221 

branch  of  the  church.  Now,  therefore,  we  do  sol- 
emnly DECLARE  THAT  SAID  BASIS  OF  REUNION  IS  OF  BIND- 
ING FORCE."  ^ 

The  same  year  the  two  Assembhes  met  in  Pittsburg, 
Pa.,  to  hokl  a  joint  convention  and  consummate  the  re- 
union. At  ten  o'clock,  on  Friday,  November  12th,  they 
met  in  processions,  headed  by  their  respective  modera- 
tors, at  a  designated  spot  in  the  street,  and  blended  into 
one.  The  moderators  clasped  hands,  joined  arms,  and 
marched  to  the  Third  Presbyterian  Church,  followed  by 
all  the  officers  and  members,  greeting  one  another  and 
locking  arms  in  the  same  manner.  As  the  procession 
entered  the  central  aisle  of  the  church,  the  grand  hymn 
of  AVesley,  "  Blow  ye  the  trumpet,  blow,"  etc.,  was  sung, 
and  the  re-united  body  took  their  seats  amidst  the  greatest 
enthusiasm.  Addresses  were  delivered  by  the  modera- 
tors and  others,  ministers  and  elders,  intermingled  with 
prayer  and  devout  thanksgiving  to  God. 

Kesolutions  were  adopted,  from  which  the  following 
is  an  extract,  expressing  the  feelings  and  purposes  of 
those  who  participated  in  this  great  scene : 

"  In  the  providence  of  God,  the  two  branches  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States  of  America, 
after  a  separation  of  more  than  thirty  years,  are  again 
united.  This  event,  in  its  magnitude,  is  unparalleled  in 
the  ecclesiastical  history  of  this  country,  and  almost  of 
the  Avorld.  It  evidences  to  all  men  the  presence  and 
unifying  power  of  the  Divine  Spirit.  A  fact  so  remark- 
able and  significant  attracts  interest  and  creates  expec- 
tation among  even  worldly  minds.  It  awakens  the  sym- 
pathies and  the   hopes   of  all  who   truly  love   Christ 

1  Minutes,  1869,  p.  1163,  O.  S. ;  1869,  p.  500,  N.  S. 


222  THE  people's  histoky 

among  other  denominations.  It  awakens  hope,  since 
it  iUustrates  the  evident  purpose  of  God  to  bring  all  his 
followers  into  closer  union  in  spirit,  combine  them  in 
action  for  the  ovei-throw  of  error  and  the  diffusion  of 
his  truth ;  it  awakens  expectation,  since  they  justly  an- 
ticipate, on  our  part,  from  this  union  of  resources, 
spirit,  and  action,  a  far  more  vigorous  assault  upon  the 
forces  of  darkness  and  more  decided  efforts  to  spread 
the  gospel  among  all  classes  in  our  own  and  other 
lands. 

"Let  us  then,  the  ministers,  elders,  and  members  of 
this  church  here  assembled,  as,  in  spirit,  standing  in 
the  presence  of  and  representing  the  entire  body  of  be- 
lievers in  our  connection,  and  the  beloved  missionaries 
in  foreign  lands,  who  now  await,  with  tender  and  prayer- 
ful interest,  this  consummation  of  oar  union — let  us,  in 
humble  dependence  upon  our  dear  Redeemer,  with 
deep  humility  in  view  of  our  past  inefficiency  and  pre- 
sent unworfchiness,  and  as  an  expression  of  our  devout 
gratitude  to  him  who  has  brought  this  once  dissevered, 
now  imited,  church  up  to  this  Mount  of  Transjitjura- 
tio)i,  signalize  this  most  blessed  and  joyous  «nion  with 
an  offering  in  some  good  degree  commensurate  with  the 
abundant  pecuniary  gifts  that  he  has  bestowed  on  us. 
And,  to  this  end,  be  it 

''Resolved,  That  it  is  incumbent  upon  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  United  States  of  America,  one  in  organi- 
zation, one  in  faith,  and  one  in  effort,  to  make  a  special 
OFFERING  to  the  treasury  of  the  Lord  of  five  millions 

OF  DOLLAllS." 

This  transaction  of  national  or  world-wide  impor- 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  223 

tance  produced  a  profound  impression.  Such  an  event 
had  hardly  occurred  before  in  all  histor3\  The  spirit 
and  the  strength  of  the  re-united  church  may  be  learned 
from  the  fact  that,  in  1872,  the  thank-offering  it  had 
been  resolved  to  raise  was  reported  to  have  been  ex- 
ceeded, and  the  amount  reached  the  magnificent  sum 
total  of  $7,833,983.85! 

This  gives  some  idea  of  the  constant  growth  of  the 
denomination  since  the  day  it  was  organized  by  Ma- 
kemie  and  his  six  co-laborers  at  Philadelphia,  in  1705. 
The  first  meeting  of  the  General  Assembly  after  the  re- 
union reported  446,561  communicants.  Through  all 
the  divisions  and  controversies,  and  the  terrible  civil 
war,  the  church  had  been  growing  steadily,  doing  all 
along  a  grand  work  for  the  country  and  for  Christ,  in 
the  achievements  of  peace,  which  historians  do  not 
record,  and  Avhich  are  not  all  included  in  tabulated 
statistics. 

The  Southern  Church  had  been  also  growing  and 
doing  a  noble  work  in  its  field.  During  the  Aveary  years 
of  national  strife  it  had  gone  forward  preaching  the 
gospel,  often  amidst  the  smoke  of  battle,  sharing  the 
impoverishment  of  a  country  engaged  in  a  life  and 
death  struggle,  which  ended  at  last  in  disaster  and  total 
financial  ruin.  On  small  salaries  and  no  salaries,  its 
ministers  had  labored  on,  waiting  for  a  brighter  day. 
Now,  in  1888,  the  two  churches  stand  side  by  side, 
strong  in  the  truth  of  God,  strong  in  faith  and  love 
and  hope,  looking  forward  to  the  future  with  trust  and 
consecration. 

Fraternal  correspondence  was  established  between 
the   Northern    and    Southern    General   Assemblies   in 


224  THE  people's  history 

1882.  The  subject  had  been  for  a  number  of  years 
before  both  l)odies.  But  the  Southern  Assembly  had 
declmed  to  establish  "  fraternal  relations "  with  its 
sister  church,  because  of  certain  deliverances  of  the 
Northern  Assembly  growing  out  of  the  anti-slavery 
agitation  and  secession.  After  a  number  of  years 
of  fruitless  negotiations,  the  object  in  question  was 
rather  unexpectedly  accomplished  in  1882,  by  the 
adoption  by  the  two  assemblies  of  what  has  passed 
into  history  as  the  "  concurrent  resulution."  It  origi- 
nated in  the  Southern  Assembly  at  Atlanta,  where  it 
was  adopted  with  but  three  dissenting  votes.  It  was 
then  telegraphed  to  the  Northern  Assembly,  at  Spring- 
field, Illinois,  for  their  "prayerful  consideration,  and  "tiKf- 
tatis  7/ii/tanJis,  for  their  reciprocal  concurrence,  as  af- 
fording a  basis  for  the  exchange  of  delegates  forthwith." 
The  resolution  stated  :  "  That  while  receding  from 
no  principle,  we  do  hereby  declare  our  regret  for,  and 
withdrawal  of  all  expressions  of  our  Assembly  which 
may  be  regarded  as  reflecting  upon,  or  offensive  to, 
the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States  of 
America."  This  resolution  was  adopted  by  the  North- 
ern Assembly,  without  the  last  two  words,  "  of  Amer- 
ica," so  as  to  make  it  refer  to  the  other  Assembly,  as 
had  been  requested.  But  when  the  action  was  tel- 
egraphed back  to  the  Southern  Assembly,  it  was  ac- 
companied by  a  dispatch  from  the  Northern  moder- 
ator to  the  effect  "  that  in  the  action  now  being  taken 
we  disclaim  any  reference  to  the  actions  of  preceding 
Assemblies  concerning  loyalty  and  rebellion,  but  we 
refer  only  to  those  concerning  schism,  heresy  and  blas- 
phemy." 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  225 

The  reception  of  this  message  made  an  unpleasant 
impression  on  the  Southern  Assembly,  and  came  very 
near  putting  an  end  to  the  negotiations ;  but  an  answer 
was  sent  back  stating  that  "If  the  action  of  your  As- 
sembly, telegraphed  by  your  moderator  to  our  moder- 
ator, does  not  modify  the  concurrent  resolution 
adopted  by  your  Assembly  and  ours,  we  are  prepared 
to  send  delegates  forthwith."  The  Northern  Assembly 
responded :  "  The  action  referred  to  does  not  modify, 
but  explains,  the  concurrent  resolution,  and  the  expla- 
nation is  on  the  face  of  the  action.  There  is  nothing 
behind  it  or  between  the  lines.  Shall  we  appoint  del- 
egates this  day  to  visit  the  respective  Assemblies  next 
year?" 

In  answer  to  this  the  Southern  Assembly  notified 
the  Northern  of  its  "entire  satisfaction  with  the 
full  and  explicit  terms  in  which  it  had  expressed  its 
'  reciprocal  concurrence,' "  and  immediately  appointed 
delegates  to  attend  the  General  Assembly  of  the  North, 
the  following  year,  in  Saratoga.  The  Northern  Assem- 
bly likewise  appointed  delegates  to  visit  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  South  at  its  next  meeting,  in  Lexing- 
ton, Kentucky.  Both  these  delegates  performed  their 
duties  satisfactorily,  and  a  pleasant  impression  was 
made  throughout  the  land  by  the  exhibition  of  kindly 
feeling.  Fraternal  correspondence  was  continued  for 
several  years,  by  delegates,  but  of  late  it  has  been  by 
the  exchange  of  letters  of  greetings  and  good  will. 

The  Assemblies  of  both  churches  concurred  in  1887 

in  the  appointment  of  a  joint  committee  of  conference, 

consisting  of  equal  numbers  from  each  body,  to  inquire 

and  report  to  the  respective  meetings  in  1888,  as  to 

19 


220      THE  people's  history  of  presbytemanism. 

what  are  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  re-union  of  the 
Noi-thern  and  Southern  Presbyterian  Churches. 

The  Presbyterian  churches,  North  and  South,  have 
been  foremost  in  promoting  education  and  in  providing 
a  thoroughly  educated  ministry  for  their  congregations. 
They  have  theological  seminaries  at  Princeton  (New 
Jersey),  established  in  1812  ;  Auburn  (NeAv  York),  1819 ; 
Union  (Hampden-Sidney,  Virginia),  1824;  Western 
(Allegheny,  Pennsylvania),  1827 ;  Lane  (Cincinnati), 
1829;  McCormick  (Chicago),  1830;  Columbia  (South 
Carolina),  1831 ;  Danville  (Kentucky),  1853 ;  German 
(Dubuque,  Iowa),  1856;  Biddle  (colored,  North  Caro- 
lina), 1868;  German  (Bloomfield,  New  Jersey),  1869; 
San  Francisco,  1871 ;  and  Lincoln  (colored,  Pennsyl- 
vania), 1871  ■;  Tuskaloosa  (colored,  Alabama),  1877. 
There  are  also  theological  seminaries  of  recent  origin  at 
Clarkesville,  Tenn.,  and  Austin,  Texas,  making  sixteen 
in  all,  many  of  which  are  the  peers  of  any  similar  insti- 
tutions in  the  world.  No  other  church  in  the  nation  is 
better  equipped  Avith  facilities  for  theological  education. 


CHAPTEK  XXVI. 

The  Presbyterian  Church  and  its  Sisters  in  the 
United  States. 

SINCE  the  year  1789,  when  the  first  General  Assembly 
met  in  Philadelphia,  the  population  of  the  country 
has  increased  until  it  is  now  fifteen  times  as  great  as 
then,  but  the  membership  of  the  Presbyterian  churches 
has  increased  until  it  is  more  than  fifty  times  as  large 
as  it  was  a  hundred  years  ago.  The  growth  of  this 
church  is  more  rapid  than  that  of  the  nation.  During 
these  one  hundred  years  just  closing,  it  has  added  to  its 
membership  about  1,500,000  persons  on  profession  of 
faith,  of  whom  633,000  have  come  in  since  1870. 

The  prospects  of  Presbyterianism  are  very  bright  in 
America,  and  throughout  the  world.  Its  ministers  are 
recognized  as  inferior  to  those  of  no  other  church,  in 
scholarship,  pulpit  ability  and  doctrinal  soundness.  It 
is  remarkable  that  in  the  new  world  orthodoxy  should 
have  some  of  its  strongest  defenders.  In  all  the  trials 
of  the  last  hundred  years  in  American  history  the  old 
doctrines  have  remained  substantially  unchanged  ;  the 
Westminster  Confessions  have  been  sacredly  preserved. 
Because  a  few  restless  men  here  and  there  are  foohsh 
enough  to  speak  against  the  very  things  which,  by  the 
conflict  of  past  ages,  have  given  them  the  libeiiy  to 
speak,  it  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  our  time-honored 

institutions  are  being  given  up. 

227 


228 


THE  PEOPLE  S  HISTORY 


TABLE  Showing  the  Growth  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
United  States  since  1789,  when  the  First  General  Assembly 
Met  in  Philadelphia  : 


Years 


1789 
1800 
1810 
1820 
1830 
1837 

1839 
1819 
1859 
1869 
1870 
1880 
1887 


(Old  School,.. 
"(New  School, 
(Old  School,. 
(New  School, 
(Old  School,. 
"(New  School, 
j Old  School,. 
(New  School, 

(North, 

(South, 

(North, 

"(South, 

(North, 

(South, 


Totals,  1887, 


Churches 

431 

449 
772 
1299 
2158 
2865 
1673 
1260 
2512 
1555 
3487 
1542 
2740 
1721 
4526 
1469 
5489 
1928 
6436 
2236 

8672 


Ministers 


6770 


Communi- 
cants. 


18,000 

20,000 

28,901 

72,096 

173,327 

220,557 

126,583 

106,000 

200,830 

139,047 

279,630 

137,990 

258,963 

172,560 

446,561 

82,014 

578,671 

120,028 

697,835 

150,398 

848,233 


Benevolent 
Contribu- 
tions. 


f  852 

(?)  2,500 

5,439 

12,861 

184,192 

281,989 

134,439 

Not  given. 

369,371 

Not  given. 

764,668 

266,574 

1,346,179 

753,953 

2,023,956 

129,006 

2,262,871 

145,777 

3,196,458 

230,753 

f3, 427, 211 


The  following  are  the  principal  Presbyterian  bocli'3S 
in  the  United  States : 

Churches.  Ministers.  Communicants. 

Presbyterian,  Northern _  _  .  6, 437  5, 654  696, 827 

Presbytei-ian,  Southern 2,236  1,116  150,398 

Presbyterian,  Cumberland 2,540  1,563  145,146 

Presbyterian,  Cumberland  (colored)....       500  200  13,000 

Presbyterian,  United 644  730  91,086 

Presbyterian,  Reformed  (Synod) 124  112  10, 85f I 

Welsh  Calvinistic... 175  84  9,563 

Associated  Reformed  Synod,  South, 72  79  7,015 

Reformed  (General  Synod), 48  37  6,800 

Reformed  (German), 1,481  802  183,980 

Reformed  (Dutch), _..      547  547  85,543 

Synod  of  Christian  Reformed  Church,..        50          6,800 

Totals, 14,854  10,924  1,407,014 


OF  PRESBYTEBIANISM.  229 

Tlie  family  of  christian  clmrches  in  the  United 
States  is  large,  as  will  appear  by  a  perusal  of  the  fol- 
lowing comparative  statistical  tables  of  the  principal 
ones.  These  are  not  in  every  case  perfect,  as  some  de- 
nominations do  not  exercise  mnch  care  in  the  matter 
of  their  statistical  reports.  The  figures  as  to  the 
Presbyterian  and  Reformed  Clmrches,  however,  are 
strictly  accurate  and  official. 

Principal  Denominations  of  the  United  States. 

COMMtTNICANTS. 

Methodists  (inclmling  884,000  colored  Metliodists) 4,367,589 

Baptists  (including  985, 814  colored  Baptists) 2, 917, 315 

Presbyterians  (all  kinds), -_ 1,407,014 

Lutherans,  white  and  colored, 930, 830 

Disciples  of  Christ,        "  "        582,800 

Congregationalists,         "  "        43G,379 

Episcopalians,  "  "       418,531 

These  statistics  are  taken  from  the  "Year  Books" 
of  the  churches. 

The  estimates  of  adherents,  or  population  belonging 
to  each  of  these  denominations  in  the  United  States, 
obtained  in  the  usual  manner,  by  multiplying  the  num- 
bers of  communicants  by  four,  are  as  follows : 

Adherents. 
Methodists  (all  kinds  ;  including  3,536,000  colored  people). .17,470,350 

Baptist  (including  3,943,256  colored  Baptists) 11,669,260 

Presbyterians --- 5,628,056 

Lutherans 3,723,320 

Disciples  of  Christ 2,331,200 

Congregationalists --  1,745,516 

Episcopalians 1,674,124 

It  will  be  profitable  to  notice  and  compare  the 
growth  of  the  evangelical  churches  Avith  that  of  the 
nation. 


230  THE  PEOrLE's  HISTORY 

Population  of  the  United  States. 

1800, 5,308,483 

1810,. _. 7,239,881 

1820, 9,633,822 

1830, 12,8G6,020 

1840, 17,009,453 

1850, 23,191,876 

1860, ___ 31,443,321 

1870, 38,558,37 

1880, .__ ...50,155,78o 

According  to  the  census  of  1880  there  were — 

Native-born  whites 36,843,291 

Native-born  colored 6,632,549 

Foreign-born _ •„.! 6,679,943 

Total 50,155,783 

Of  the  foreign-born  there  were  natives  of 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 2,772,169 

German  Empire 1,966,774 

British  America. 717,084 

Norway.. _ 194,337 

Sweden 181,729 

France __. 106,971 

China 104,541 

While  the  population  of  the  United  States  mnltiplied 
fifteen  times,  as  has  been  stated  already,  the  commn- 
nion  roll  of  the  Presb}i;erian  churches  multiplied  fifty 
times.  Let  us  now  see  what  was  the  growth  of  Eoman 
Catholicism  compared  with  that  of  the  population  of 
the  country.  These  statistics  are  from  Dr.  Dorchester's 
*' Problem  of  Keligious  Progress." 

Population  of  the  Evan-     Roman  Catholic 
gelical  Churches.  Population. 

In  1800 1,277.052  100,000 

In  1850 12,354.958  1,614,000 

In  1870 23, 556, 886  4, 600, 000 

In  1880 35,230,870  6,367,330 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  231 

These  figures  show  that  during  eighty  years  the  in- 
crease was : 

Evangelical  Population.  R.  C.  Population* 
From  1800  to  1880.  ...                  33, 953, 818  6, 2G7, 330 

"     1850  to  1880.. __  22,875,912  4,753,330 

"     1870tol880.__.  11,873,984  1,767,330 

The  last  ten  years  were,  relatively,  the  best  for  evan- 
gelical progress. 

The  evangelical  population,  Dr.  Dorchester  says, 
was: 

In  1800,  24.06  per  cent,  of  the  whole  population. 

In  1850,  53.22 

In  1870,  60.57 

In  1880,  70.003       " 

These  statistics,  showing  the  growth  of  the  Presbyte- 
rian element,  the  whole  evangelical,  and  the  Roman  Catli- 
oUc,  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  population  in  the 
country,  have  been  given  to  counteract  the  impression 
in  the  minds  of  many  that  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
is  gradually  taking  possession  of  the  nation.  It  has 
grown  unquestionably,  but  so  have  the  Protestant 
churches,  and  much  more  rapidly.  The  Roman  Catho- 
lics have  grown  mainly  by  immigration  from  Europe ; 
they  make  far  fewer  converts  from  us  than  we  from 
them.  Almost  any  city  pastor  can  tell  of  numbers  of 
Catholics  or  children  of  Catholics  whom  he  has  received 
into  his  congregation,  but  very  few  could  give  the  names 
of  members  who  have  been  lost  to  them  by  joining  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  There  is  undoubtedly  a  ten- 
dency among  Roman  Catholics,  in  the  third  and  fourth 
generations  after  coming  to  the  United  States,  to  de- 
sert the  church  of  their  fathers  and  become  Protestants. 


232  THE  people's  history 

Our  free  institutions,  newspapers,  and  public  schools 
are  unfavorable  to  superstition  and  ecclesiastical  ty- 
ranny. They  have  built  many  magnificent  churches 
and  charitable  institutions,  which  do  a  noble  work  among 
the  unfortunate,  while  they  propagate  their  faith ;  they 
have,  in  many  cases,  unfairly  gained  a  share  of  public 
funds  to  support  their  schools  and  other  church  enter- 
prises, through  the  dishonesty  of  self-seeking  politi- 
cians ;  and  these  things  will  continue  A\dtli  more  or  less 
frequency;  Init  who  that  knoAvs  the  American  people 
can  believe  that  it  will  ever  be  possible  for  the  seven 
millions  of  Roman  Catholics  in  this  land  to  overcome 
the  remaining  fifty  millions,  and  subvert  the  govern- 
ment, or  destroy  our  civil  and  rehgious  liberties  ?  The 
hierarchy  of  Rome,  unless  they  have  radically  changed, 
— and  their  motto  is,  "  Semper  idem  ^''  always  the  sams — 
would  do  it  if  they  could ;  but  they  cannot.  Protestants 
will  have  to  contend  Avitli  them  in  the  forum  and  at  the 
ballot  box,  but  probably  never  with  the  sword,  in  this 
free  country.  If  it  should  come  to  that,  however,  and 
we  should  have  to  fight  over  again  the  battles  of  the 
past,  the  Protestants  of  America  would  arise  en  onasse, 
forgetting  all  differences  and  rivalries,  and  join  hands 
in  such  a  demonstration  as  would  utterly  destroy  every 
menace  to  their  liberties.  AVe  do  not  wish  to  oppress 
the  Roman  Catholics;  nor  do  we  propose  that  they 
shall  oppress  us.  They  may  have  perfect  libeiiy  so 
long  as  thev:  obey  the  laws.  But  the  days  have  passed 
when  such  persecutions  as  blotted  the  history  of  the 
fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and  seventeenth  centuries  with 
blood  can  occur  again.  The  hands  on  the  clock  of  time 
have  moved  a  long  way  since  then,  and  no  earthly 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  233 

power  can  set  tliem  back,  especially  in  free  America, 
and  wherever  English  is  spoken,  or  the  tramp  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  feet  is  heard. 

The  Roman  Catholic  church  is  losing  ground  in 
Europe.  The  Pope  is  deprived  of  his  temporal  power, 
and  though  statesmen  do  sometimes  court  his  influ- 
ence in  elections,  the  spectacle  is  no  longer  witnessed 
of  kings  and  queens  holding  their  thrones  at  his  will. 
He  calls  himself  the  "  Prisoner  of  the  Vatican."  Since 
the  year  1500,  just  before  the  Reformation,  when 
Europe  had  a  population  of  100,000,000,  of  whom  80,- 
000,000  were  members  of  the  Roman  Church,  to  the 
present  day,  the  adherents  of  that  church  have  grown 
to  be  (according  to  Professor  Schem)  149,000,000. 
During  that  period  it  has  gained  69,000,000 ;  but  for 
the  same  time  Protestantism,  starting  with  a  few  thou- 
sand of  Waldenses,  Hussites,  and  Lollards,  with  im- 
mense opposing  influences,  has  gained  71,000,000  in 
the  same  countries.  Truly  Protestantism  is  not  in 
danger. 

One  of  the  greatest  instrumentalities  for  the  advance- 
ment of  Protestantism,  with  its  civil  and  religious 
freedom,  is  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  and  language.  This 
wonderful  race,  with  its  indomitable  energy,  courage 
and  instinct  for  liberty,  is  spreading  over  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  globe.  It  never  loses  its  identity,  but  carries 
its  institutions  wherever  it  goes,  and  establishes  them. 
It  is  becoming  in  the  modern  world  what  the  Romans 
were  in  the  ancient,  and  the  English  language  is  rap- 
idly becoming  what  the  Latin  once  was — the  language 
of  the  civilized  world.  In  1801  English  was  spoken 
by  one-eighth  of  the  whole  number  of  civiHzed  men ; 
"•  vA.^  j^-^rq,  c^uJ 

^  ^~0  -^J^M 


234      THE  people's  history  of  presbyterianism. 

now  it  is  tlie  language  of  one-fourth.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  present  century  the  population  of  the 
United  States  was  about  5,000,000.  Now  (1888)  it  is 
at  least  60,000,000.  There  has  been  a  similar  growth 
of  the  population  of  Great  Britain  and  its  colonies, 
while  the  increase  in  population  on  the  continent  of 
Europe,  in  Eoman  Catholic  countries,  has  been  com- 
paratively small.  It  is  a  striking  fact,  too,  that  the 
traveller  through  Europe  sees  very  few  new  Roman 
Catholic  churches.  There  are  thousands  of  old  ones, 
many  of  them  decaying,  some  that  have  stood  unfinish- 
ed for  scores  or  hundreds  of  years,  and  are  crumbling 
with  age.  But  Protestantism  is  building  hundreds  of 
new  churches,  not  only  in  America  and  in  heathen  coun- 
tries, but  all  over  Roman  Catholic  Europe,  and  in  the 
"Eternal  City,"  in  sight  of  the  Vatican  itself. 

A  greater  enemy  than  Rome  threatens  evangelical 
Christendom.  It  is  the  spirit  of  worldhness,  the  grad- 
ual dissipation  of  the  Holy  Sabbath,  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  loose  views  of  doctrine  into  the  churches.  Our 
fight  is  not  so  much  for  religious  liberty  as  for  the 
perpetuity  of  the  fourth  commandment  and  the  inspi- 
ration of  the  Scriptures.  In  this  conflict  may  we 
members  of  the  great  Protestant  sisterhood  stand 
shoulder  to  shoulder,  heart  to  heart,  and  may  God 
give  us  the  promised  baptism  of  the  Holy  Ghost  from 
Heaven,  without  Avhicli  our  doctrines  and  organizations 
are  all  in  vain,  like  vast  machinery  without  power. 

It  is  not  claiming  too  much  to  say  that  the  Sabbath 
and  the  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures  have  no  stronger 
defender  than  the  Presbyterian  Churches  in  America 
and  throughout  the  world. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

Universal  Presbyterianism. 

THE  "Alliance  of  the  Reformed  Cliiirclies  tlirongli- 
out  the  World  holding  the  Presbyterian  System  " 
was  formed  in  London  July  21,  1875,  by  a  number  of 
ministers  and  elders  representing  the  Presl^yterian  and 
Reformed  Churches  of  America,  the  United  Kingdom  _ 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  the  British  colonies,  and 
the  continent  of  Europe.  An  organization  was  effected, 
and  a  constitution  adopted,  as  follows : 

Constitution  of  the  Alliance. 

"Whereas  churches  holding  the  Reformed  faith,  and 
organized  on  Presbyterian  principles,  are  found,  though 
under  a  variety  of  names,  in  different  parts  of  the  world ; 
whereas  many  of  these  were  long  wont  to  maintain  close 
relations,  but  are  at  present  united  by  no  visible  bond, 
whether  of  fellowship  or  of  work ;  and  whereas,  in  the 
providence  of  God,  the  time  seems  to  have  come  when 
they  may  all  more  fully  manifest  their  essential  oneness, 
have  closer  communion  with  each  other,  and  promote 
great  causes  by  joint  action;  it  is  agreed  to  form  a 
Presbyterian  Alhance,  to  meet  in  general  council  from 
time  to  time,  in  order  to  confer  upon  matters  of  com- 
mon interest,  and  to  further  the  ends  for  which  the 
church  has  been  constituted  by  her  Divine  Lord  and 

235 


236  THE  people's  history 

only  King.  In  forming  this  Alliance  the  Presbyterian 
churches  do  not  mean  to  change  their  fraternal  relations 
with  other  churches,  but  ^^dll  be  ready,  as  heretofore, 
to  join  with  them  in  christian  fellowship,  and  in  ad- 
vancing the  cause  of  the  Redeemer,  on  the  general 
principle  maintained  and  taught  in  the  Reformed  Con- 
fessions, that  the  Church  of  God  on  earth,  though  com- 
posed of  many  members,  is  one  body  in  the  communion 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  of  which  body  Christ  is  the  Supreme 
Head,  and  the  Scriptures  alone  are  the  infallible  law. 

"Articles. 

"I.  Designation. — This  Alliance  shall  be  known  as 
'The  Alliance  of  the  Reformed  Churches  throughout 
the  World  holding  the  Presbyterian  system.' 

"II.  Membership. — Any  church  organized  on  Pres- 
byterian principles,  which  holds  the  supreme  authority 
of  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  in 
matters  of  faith  and  morals,  and  whose  creed  is  in  har- 
mony with  the  consensus  of  the  Reformed  Confessions, 
shall  be  eligible  for  admission  into  the  Alliance. 

"III.  The  Council: 

"1.  Ttf<  Meetings. — The  Alliance  shall  meet  in  general 
council  ordinarily  once  in  three  years. 

"2.  lU  Conxtitneiicy. — The  council  shall  consist  of 
delegates,  being  ministers  and  elders,  appointed  by  the 
churches  forming  the  Alliance,  the  number  from  each 
church  being  regulated  by  a  plan  sanctioned  by  the 
council,  regard  being  had  generally  to  the  number  of 
congi'egations  in  the  several  churches.  The  delegates, 
as  far  as  practicable,  to  consist  of  an  equal  number  of 
ministers  and  elders.     The  council  may,  on  the  recom- 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  237 

mendation  of  a  committee  on  business,  invite  Presbyte- 
rian brethren,  not  delegates,  to  offer  suggestions,  to  de- 
liver addresses,  and  to  read  papers. 

"3.  Its  Powers. — The  council  shall  have  power  to 
decide  upon  the  application  of  churches  desiring  to  join 
the  Alliance ;  it  shall  have  power  to  entertain  and  con- 
sider topics  which  may  be  brought  before  it  by  any 
church  represented  in  the  council,  or  by  any  member  of 
the  council,  on  their  being  transmitted  in  the  manner 
hereinafter  provided ;  but  it  shall  not  interfere  with  the 
existing  creed  or  constitution  of  any  church  in  the  Al- 
liance, or  with  its  internal  order  or  external  relations. 

*'  4.  Its  Ohjeds. — The  council  shall  consider  questions 
of  general  interest  to  the  Presbyterian  community;  it 
shall  seek  the  welfare  of  churches,  especially  such  as 
are  weak  and  persecuted ;  it  shall  gather  and  dissemi- 
nate information  concerning  the  kingdom  of  Christ 
throughout  the  world ;  it  shall  commend  the  Presb^i^e- 
rian  system  as  scriptural,  and  as  combining  simplicity, 
efficiency,  and  adaptation  to  all  times  and  conditions ; 
it  shall  also  entertain  all  subjects  directly  connected 
with  the  work  of  evangelization,  such  as  the  relation  of 
the  christian  church  to  the  evangelization  of  the  world, 
the  distribution  of  mission  work,  the  combination  of 
church  energies,  especially  in  reference  to  great  cities 
and  destitute  districts,  the  training  of  ministers,  the  use 
of  the  press,  colportage,  the  religious  instruction  of  the 
young,  the  sanctification  of  the  Sabbath,  systematic 
beneficence,  the  suppression  of  intemperance,  and  other 
prevailing  vices,  and  the  best  methods  of  opposing  in- 
fidelity and  Komanism. 

"5.  Its  Methods. — The  council  shall  seek  to  guide 

20 


238  THE  people's  history 

and  stimulate  public  sentiment  by  papers  read,  by  ad- 
dresses delivered  and  published,  by  the  circulation  of 
information  respecting  the  allied  churches  and  their 
missions,  by  the  exposition  of  scriptural  principles,  and 
by  defences  of  the  truth ;  by  communicating  the  minutes 
of  its  proceedings  to  the  supreme  courts  of  the  churches 
forming  the  Alliance,  and  by  such  other  action  as  is  in 
accordance  with  its  constitution  and  objects. 

"6.  Coimmttee  on  Business. — The  council,  at  each 
general  meeting,  shall  appoint  a  Committee  on  Business, 
through  which  all  communications  and  notices  of  sub- 
jects proposed  to  be  discussed  shall  pass.  The  com- 
mittee appointed  at  one  general  meeting  shall  act  pro- 
visionally, so  far  as  is  necessary,  in  preparing  for  the 
following  meeting. 

"lY.  Change  of  Constitution. — No  change  shall  be 
made  in  this  constitution,  except  on  a  motion  made  at 
one  general  meeting  of  council,  not  objected  to  by  a 
majority  of  the  churches,  and  carried  by  a  two-thirds 
vote  at  the  next  general  meeting." 

The  first  general  council  met  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland, 
July  3, 1877.  The  subsequent  meetings  have  been  held 
at  Philadelphia,  in  1880;  at  Belfast,  in  1884;  and 
another  is  to  take  place  in  London  July,  1888. 

This  alliance  has  already  done  great  good,  in  mass- 
ing the  forces  of  our  common  Presbyterianism,  creating 
a  universal  esprit  du  corps,  and  in  enlisting  the  strong 
for  the  assistance  of  the  weak.  It  is  an  encourage- 
ment to  the  Waldensian,  Bohemian  and  French 
pastors,  whose  churches  have  been  so  cruelly  oppressed 
and  straitened,  to  come  to  the  meetings  of  this  confed- 
eration of  brethren  of  like  faith,  and  feel  the  strength 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  239 

of  a  vast  organization.  They  return  to  tlieir  homes 
with  a  new  inspiration  and  hope.  This  is  worth  more 
to  them  than  the  gifts  of  money  that  have  been  made 
to  some  of  them  through  the  medium  of  the  AUiance, 
to  aid  them  in  their  work.  But  are  not  the  members 
of  the  younger  and  stronger  benefitted  by  contact  with 
these  children  of  time-honored  churches  ?  It  is  a  priv- 
ilege to  grasp  the  hand  of  a  Huguenot,  a  Bohemian, 
a  Swiss,  or  a  Waldensian  pastor.  It  is  like  touch- 
ing a  line  that  leads  back  to  the  days  when,  through 
persecution  and  blood,  their  heroic  predecessors  made 
possible  the  blessings  which  we  now  enjoy.  We  are 
prone  to  forget  the  past  and  to  ignore  the  lessons  of 
history ;  but  it  cannot  be  so  when  we  sit  in  the  same 
assembly  with  men  from  the  venerable  churches  of 
Holland,  France,  Italy,  Germany,  Switzerland,  Eng- 
land, Scotland,   Bohemia   and  Hungary. 

Principally  through  the  agency  of  this  AUiance  we 
have  been  able  to  gather  reliable  reports  and  statistics 
of  the  Presbyterian  family,  whose  members  are  dis- 
tributed among  many  nations. 

COMPABATIVE    STATISTICS    OF    THE   PRINCIPAL    PrOTESTANT  DENOMINA- 
TIONS IN  THE  Whole  World. 

Communicants.  Adherents. 

Presbyterians 8,894,546  35,578,184 

Lutherans  (general  statistics  unattainable). 

Methodists 5,849,371  23,397,484 

Episcopalians   (estimated) 21,000,000 

Baptists 3,313,026  13,252,104 

Congregationalists 896,742  3,586,968 

The  number  of  adherents  is  obtained  by  multiplying 
the  number  of  communicants  by  four,  though  many  de- 


240  THE  people's  history 

nominations  multiply  by  five.  The  former,  the  more 
moderate  estimate,  is  nearer  the  truth.  It  is  impossible 
to  gather  accurate  statistics  of  the  Episcopal  Church 
elsewhere  than  in  America.  The  above  estimate  is 
from  a  high  authority  of  the  Church  of  England. 
Neither  can  the  members  of  the  Lutheran  church 
throughout  the  world  be  determined  ^vith  certainty. 
The  Lutheran  churches  of  Europe  sustain  such  involved 
relations  to  the  various  state  governments  and  to  the 
other  denominations,  and  their  statistics  are  so  incom- 
plete, that  it  is  out  of  the  question  to  attempt  to  form 
anything  more  than  a  guess  as  to  their  real  strength. 
They  are  beheved  to  be  next  in  numbers  after  the 
Presbyterians,  to  whom  they  are  more  nearly  aUied 
than  to  any  others. 

To  show  that  these  are  fair  and  moderate  estimates, 
the  testimony  of  the  Eev.  James  McCosh,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 
late  President  of  Princeton  College,  given  sixteen  years 
ago,  is  added  in  corroboration  of  oui'  statistics. 

In  a  paper  read  at  the  John  Knox  "Tercentenary" 
celebration,  in  Philadelphia,  on  "  Presbyterianism  in 
the  World,"  Dr.  McCosh  said : 

''It  is  reckoned  that  if  you  sum  up  these  churches 
(just  referred  to  by  him,  in  foreign  lands),  and  then  add 
to  them  those  in  America,  they  amount  to  twenty  thou- 
sand congregations,  and  a  population  of  thirty-four  mil- 
Hons.  If  you  add  the  Lutherans,  who,  in  many  parts 
of  Germany,  are  one  mth  the  Reformed,  and  who  are 
nearer  to  Presbyterianism  than  they  are  either  to  Epis- 
copacy or  Independency,  we  have  a  population  of  fifty- 
five  out  of  one  hundred  and  seven  milKons  of  Protes- 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  241 

tants,  or  an  actual  majority  of  the  Protestants  of  the 
world." 

Since  these  words  were  written,  Presbyterianism  has 
passed  through  the  best  decade  and  a  half  of  its  whole 
history. 

The  numbers  of  communicants  in  the  Baptist  and 
Methodists  churches  are  taken  from  the  "  Year  Books  " 
of  the  two  denominations.  The  Methodist  statistics 
included  the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodists,  who  really 
belong  to  the  Presbyterian  Church,  and  are  members  of 
the  "Alliance  of  Presbyterian  and  Reformed  Churches." 
So  133,797,  the  number  of  communicants  in  that  body, 
had  to  be  deducted  from  their  statement.  In  the  Metho- 
dist Year  Book  for  1888,  the  number  of  adherents  is 
obtained  by  multiplying  the  number  of  communicants 
by  five.  That  rule  would  bring  the  Presb}i;erian  adhe- 
rents up  to  44,472,730.  In  the  above  table  the  rule  of 
multiplying  by  four  is  applied  to  all  denominations 
mentioned  in  it,  and,  of  course,  is  fair ;  for  if  they  were 
multiplied  by  five  they  would  all  be  raised  in  the  same 
ratio.  These  statistics  show  that  the  Presbyterian  is 
by  far  the  largest  Protestant  Church  on  the  globe. 


CHAPTEE  XXYIII. 

The  Spirit  of  Presbytepjanism. 

WE  have  followed  the  history  of  Presb}i;erianism 
through  a  course  of  many  centuries;  have 
looked  upon  its  origin,  development,  sufferings,  defeats 
and  victories ;  and  have  taken  a  survey  of  its  present 
condition  and  prospects.  The  attentive  reader  cannot 
fail  to  have  seen  that  the  spirit  of  Presbyterianism,  as 
exemplified  in  its  fruits,  is  that  of  the  broadest  catho- 
licity as  well  as  love  of  the  truth. 

Truth,  and  man,  for  God,  is  its  motto.  The  tendency 
of  its  operations  has  been  to  liberate  men  from  super- 
stition, to  give  them  a  thirst  for  knowledge  and  for 
liberty.  It  is  the  mother  of  repul)licanism  in  church 
and  state.  America,  and  Great  Britain  with  its  world - 
encircling  colonial  system,  would  not  have  been  what 
they  are  to-day  but  for  Presb3terianism  in  Ital}', 
Switzerland,  France,  Holland  and  Scotland.  Know- 
ledge and  liberty  dwell  together,  and  they  have  come 
largely  from  the  influence  in  past  ages,  of  that  heaven- 
born  principle  of  which  this  book  is  a  history. 

The  world  owes  to  Presbyterianism  a  debt  it  does 
not  feel,  and  one  it  can  never  repay.  Comparativeh' 
few  of  the  millions  of  men  who  enjoy  the  inestimable 
blessings  of  civil  and  rehgious  Hberty  care  to  inquire 

242 


THE  people's  history  OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.         243 

whence  tliey  came,  or  stop  to  think  how  different 
might  have  been  their  lot  but  for  the  sacrifices  of  those 
who  Kved  long  ago,  and  whose  names  are  oft  forgotten. 
But  those  who  do  study  causes  and  effects  in  the  affairs 
of  men,  and  who  follow  trains  of  events  back  to  their 
origin,  will  come  to  render  honor  where  it  is  due.  The 
philosophy  of  truth  is  written  in  the  annals  of  man- 
kind ;  its  principles  are  outlined  forever  in  the  profile  of 
history ;  and  there  always  will  be  seers  who  will  interpret 
to  men  the  lessons  of  the  past.  Therefore  there  is  no 
danger  that  the  great  doctrines  and  polity  that  cluster 
around  the  Presbyterian  name  will  ever  be  forgotten. 
We  behold  in  the  Presbyterian  Church  a  glorious  ben- 
efactor of  mankind  in  all  ages ;  but  it  is  not  enfeebled. 
It  is  stronger  than  ever.  We  believe  that  the  future 
has  for  it  as  great  a  work  as  the  past  has  had,  and  we 
sons  of  a  noble  church  are  proud  of  our  mother. 

Does  the  Presbyterian  church  despise  its  sisters,  or 
claim  to  be  the  only  Church  of  Christ  ?  No ;  if  it  did 
it  would  be  a  contradiction  of  its  very  genius  and  spirit. 
It  acknowledges  all  God's  people  as  brothers,  and  aU 
evangelical  churches  as  equals,  inviting  their  ministers 
into  its  pulpits,  receiving  them  into  our  ministry  with- 
out reordination,  and  welcoming  their  members  to  a 
communion  table  which  it  claims  not  as  its  own,  but 
the  sacred  meeting  place  of  all  christians  for  fellowship 
with  one  another,  and  with  their  common  Lord.  This 
book  will  have  been  written  in  vain  if  its  perusal  should 
foster  a  spirit  of  narrow  sectarianism.  But  if  it  serve 
the  purpose  for  which  it  is  designed,  it  will  tend 
to  make  Presbyterians  who  read  it  love  their  o^ti 
church  more,   and  at  the    same  time  look  upon  the 


244  THE  piople's  history 

world  and  all  the  church  of  God  with  a  broader  chris- 
tian sympathy. 

"And  now  abideth  faith,  hope,  charity,  these  three; 
but  the  greatest  of  these  is  Charity." 


PRESBYTERIAN  CHRONOLOGY. 
A.  D.     387.  Augustine,  pastor  of  Hippo,  baptized. 

1415.  John  Huss  burnt  at  Constance. 

1536.  Calvin  published  his  Institutes. 

1628.  First  Reformed  Church  established  in  New  Amsterdam 
(New  Y^'ork). 

1560.  First  General  Assembly  met  at  Edinburgh. 

1564.  Death  of  John  Calvin. 

1572.  John  Knox  died. 

1638.  National  Covenant  signed  in  Grey  friars  Churchyard,  Edin- 
burgh. 

1643.  Westminster  Assembly  convened  at  the  Abbey. 

1648.  Confession  of  Faith  and  Catechisms  sanctioned  by  Parlia- 
ment. 

1679.  Battle  of  Both  well  Bridge.     Covenanters  defeated. 

1682.  Francis  Makemie  came  to  America,  and  settled  in  Mary- 
land. 

1685.  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 

1688.  Restoration  of  Episcopal  Church  of  England  and  Ireland. 

1705.  Fii-st  Presbytery  organized  at  Philadelphia. 

1706.  First  recorded  ordination  to  the  ministry  in  United  States, 

at  Freehold,  New  Jersey ;  John  Boyd  the  candidate. 
1717.  The  Synod  of  Philadelphia  organized. 
1727.  Log  College,  the  mother  of  Princeton,  founded. 
1734.  Great  awakening  under  Jonathan  Edwards. 
1739.  Movement  headed  by  'NVhitetield. 
1745.  SjTiod  divided. 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  245 

1758.  Synods  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia  reunited. 

1775.  Mecklenburg  resolutions  adopted. 

1776.  John  Witherspoon  in  Congress. 
1788.  General  A'ssembly  organized. 

1837.  The  Church  divided  into  two  parts,  called  Old  School  and 
New  School. 

1861.  Separation  of  the  Church  into  Northern  and  Southern  Di- 
visions. 

1869.  Reunion  of  Old  and  New  Schools,  at  Pittsburgh,  Novem- 
ber 10th. 

1875.  Organization  of  Alliance  of  Reformed  Churches  through- 
out the  world  holding  the  Presbyterian  System. 


NOTES   AND   STATISTICS 

OF 

r  H  E    11 E  F  0  R  M  £  I)    C  11  II II C  H  E  S 

THROUGHOUT   THE    WORLD 

Holding  the  Presbyterian  System. 


NOTES. 

General  Sitrvey  of  the  Presbyterian  Churches  Throughout 
THE  World. 

(Amended  f7'0'm  the  report  of  the  third  Oeneral  Council.*) 

Reformed  Church  in  Austria. — In  the  Austrian  empire  a 
group  of  Reformed  congregations,  locally  associated,  forms 
a  Senioratus  or  Presbytery.  The  moderator  of  the  Seniora- 
tus  is  called  *' senior,"  and  is  elected  for  six  years  by  the 
church  sessions  of  the  bounds,  but  the  election  must  be  rati- 
fied by  the  provincial  government.  The  senior  has  associated 
with  him  a  con-senior,  or  vice-senior,  and  also  a  seniorate- 
curator,  or  presiding  elder.  All  the  seniorates  of  the  pro- 
vince form  the  super iiitendential-convenius,  or  Provincial 
S;)aiod.  The  moderator  of  this  body  is  called  the  superin- 
tendent, and  is  elected  for  life  by  the  church  sessions  of  the 
whole  province,  but  the  election  must  be  confirmed  by  the 
emperor  himself.  There  is  a  superintendent-curator  also  a 
vice-superintendent,  who  are  appointed  for  six  years  by  the 
Provincial  Synod.  This  body  meets  triennially,  and  is  com- 
posed of  the  superintendent,  the  vice-superintendent,  and  the 
superintendential-cm-ator,  the  seniors  of  the  province,  wdth 
their  curators,  and  a  few  delegates,  ministers,  and  elders  in 
equal  numbers,  from  the  Seniorates. 

The  general  Synod  represents  the  whole  Re foo-med Church, 
for  the  government  regards  the  churches  in  the  jDrovinces  of 
Austria,  Bohemia,  and  Moravia,  not  as  distinct  and  inde- 
pendent churches,  but  as  branch  organizations  in  each  pro- 
vince of  the  one  Reformed  Church.     This  General  Synod 

*  Great  praise  is  clue  Eev.  G.  D.  Matthews,  D.  D. ,  of  Quebec,  Canada, 
secretary  of  the  Alliance,  for  his  unremitting  and  disinterested  dili- 
gence in  gathering  information  and  statistics  from  all  the  churches 
composing  the  Alliance. — R.  P.  K. 

249 


250  THE  PEOrLE's  HISTORY 

meets  every  sixth  jenv,  and  is  composed  of  23  persons — 12 
ministers  and  11  elders — as  follows :  the  superintendent  of 
the  Austrian  church  (German),  with  his  curator:  the  Re- 
formed theological  i3rofessor  in  Vienna ;  two  deputies  elected 
b}'  the  Provincial  Synod  of  Austria ;  the  superintendent  and 
four  seniors  of  the  Bohemian  Church,  mth  their  respective 
curators;  the  superintendent  and  two  seniors  of  the  Mora- 
vian Church,  with  their  curators,  with  the  senior  of  Galicia 
and  his  curator.  Before  taking  Ms  seat,  each  member  must 
solemnly  declare:  ''I promise  in  the  presence  of  God,  in 
my  capacity  as  a  member  of  this  Synod,  to  seel:  the  inner 
and  outward  v^elfare  of  the  JEvungelical  Church  Helvetic 
Confession,  according  to  my  best  judgment  and  conscience, 
and  to  aim  at  the  church's  growing  into  Him  who  is  the 
Head,  Christ:' 

This  General  Synod  is  somewhat  anomalous  in  its  charac- 
ter. The  lay-members,  the  curators,  are  elected  by  the  Pro- 
vincial S;v'nods,  but  the  ecclesiastical  members  (superinten- 
dents and  seniors)  are  there  in  virtue  of  their  office.  Should 
any  of  these  be  absent,  their  places  are  occu^^ied  by  their  re- 
spective deputies. 

The  General  Synod,  while  largely  an  advisory  body,  pos- 
sesses, however,  certain  powers.  If  the  government,  repre- 
sented by  the  cultus-ministerium,  has  a  veto  on  its  actions, 
the  Synod  can  decline  to  comply  with  the  wishes  of  the  gov- 
ernment. Thus  in  1877,  the  General  Synod  desired  to  divide 
itself  into  a  German  General  Synod  meeting  in  Vienna,  and 
a  Bohemian  and  Moraviaii  General  Synod,  with  an  Ober- 
kirchenrath  for  itself,  meeting  in  Prague.  The  cultus-min- 
isterium vetoed  the  proposal,  which  then  fell  to  the  gi'ound. 
At  the  same  meeting  the  Oberkichenrath,  representing  the 
cultus-ministerium,  proposed  a  new  Book  of  Discipline.  This 
the  Synod  dechned  to  discuss,  and  so,  it  in  turn  fell  to 
the  ground.  The  General  Synod  can  consider  all  matters 
brought  before  it  by  the  provincial  Synods,  by  congregations 
or  by  chm^ch  members.  Many  of  these  questions  concern 
polity,  as  the  church  is  working  her  way  to  a  thoroughly 
Presbyterian  system  of  government. 

Each  General  Sjniod  elects  a  S^iiodal  committee,  to  repre- 
sent the  church  during  the  ensuing  six  years,  or  until  the 
next  General  S^iiod. 

Above  this  General  Synod,  or  its  Synodal  committee,  is  the 


OF  PKES13YTEKIANISM.  251 

"  Oherhlrcheiirath"  the  medium  through  which  the  cultus- 
7ninisterium  deals  with  the  church.  The  full  title  of  this 
body  is,  "  The  Imperial  Royal  Evangelical  Upper  Ecclesi- 
astical Council  of  the  Augustine  and  Helvetic  Confessions 
in  Vienna"  and,  naturally,  it  possesses  very  great  influence 
in  church  matters.  All  its  members  are,  however,  appointed 
by  the  Emperor,  and  as  the  church  has  no  voice  in  their  ap- 
pointment, she  is  now  earnestly  seeking  its  abohtion.  As 
this  council  has  to  deal  with  all  Protestants,  it  is  divided  into 
two  sections,  one  having  charge  of  matters  affecting  the 
Lutheran  Church,  and  the  other  of  matters  affecting  the 
Keformed  Church.  The  president  of  the  council  is  a  layman, 
and  is  chairman  of  both  sections.  The  hmits  and  natui'e  of 
the  relations  of  the  Oberkirchenrath  to  the  church  have  not 
yet  been  fully  defined,  but  it  may  be  said,  in  general,  that 
the  Oberkirchenrath  represents  the  church  to  the  state,  and 
the  state  to  the  church.  The  state  declares  its  claim  in  rela- 
tion to  the  church  to  be  simply  '^jiis  circa  sacra"  but  there 
is  no  security  against  the  authorities  trespassing  ^' intra 
sacra"  Sometimes  these  have  done  so,  though  as  magis- 
trates of  the  state,  they  have  acted  illegally  in  so  doing-. 
For  instance,  a  vacant  parish  elects  a  pastor.  The  senior, 
the  supeiintendent,  and  the  Oberkirchenrath  bring  the  elec- 
tion before  the  provincial  government.  All  of  these  ecclesi- 
astical authoritities  approve  of  the  choice,  but  the  veto  of  the 
provincial  government  renders  the  election  null  and  void,  and 
resort  must  be  had  to  a  new  election.  The  Oberkirchenrath 
may,  therefore,  formally  appoint  pastors  to  the  parishes,  but 
it  is  the  government  of  Austria  that  does  so  actually.  The 
state  does  not  consciously  interfere  in  matters  of  faith,  but 
sometimes  the  church  regards  as  a  matter  of  faith  that  which 
the  state  regards  as  only  a  matter  of  outward  constitution 
and  administration. 

Over  the  Oberkirchenrath  is  the  '' cultus-ministeomim,"  or 
that  department  of  the  general  government  of  the  empire 
which  takes  the  oversight  of  all  matters  affecting  the  recog- 
nized churches,  concerning  itself  m  the  public  worship  and 
education. — Ministeriimi  fur  Cultns  und  JJnterricht. 

The  phrase  "recognized  churches"  may  need  explanation. 

In  accordance  with  the  political  system  of  the  Eiu'opean 
continent,  all  societies  or  associations  within  a  particular  king- 
dom are  subject  to  the  supervision  of  the  government,  and 


252  THE  PEOrLE's  HISTORY 

illegal  unless  explicitly  autliorized.  Heuce  religious  socie- 
ties require  the  sanction  of  the  state  before  they  can  exist 
legally  or  carry  out  their  sj)ecial  objects.  The  Austrian  gov- 
ernment, wliich  is  wilhng  to  "recognize"  all  suitable  parties 
entitled  to  it,  recognizes  as  churches  Avith  the  right  of  public 
worship,  the  Roman  Catholic,  the  Greek  Catholic,  the  Arme- 
nian, the  Greek  Oriental,  the  Lutheran,  the  Reformed,  the 
Moravian,  the  Jewish,  and,  since  the  occupation  of  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina,  and  in  the  army  especially,  the  Mohamme- 
dan faiths.  All  other  denominations  are  treated,  in  terms  of 
the  Association  law  ( Vereinsgeset),  as  Societies,  and  are  al- 
lowed to  hold  only  private  services. 

These  services  may  be  attended  by  the  pohce,  and  can  be 
held  legally,  except  in  the  case  of  family  worship,  only  when 
intimation  has  been  prcAdously  given  to  the  authorities. 

None  but  adults  and  z?iyi^6(/ persons  are  allowed  to  attend 
such  meetings,  and  the  invitations  must  be  given  to  these 
individually  and  by  special  cards,  not  by  general  placards  or 
public  notices.  Private  services  can  at  any  time  be  stopped 
if  no  notice  has  been  given  previously  to  the  magistrate,  or 
if  any  other  requu'ements  of  the  Association  law  have  been 
disregarded. 

Under  the  existing  laws,  the  amount  of  rehgious  hberty 
enjoyed  in  Austria  is  not  inconsiderable,  but  its  advent  is  so 
recent  that  all  the  magistrates  have  not  yet  realized  its  pre- 
sence. The  law,  indeed,  is  often  better  than  its  practice,  so 
that  much  depends  on  the  amount  of  knowledge  possessed 
by  an  injured  party  as  to  the  proper  mode  of  obtaining  re- 
dress. Hitherto  the  highest  courts  in  the  state  have  generally 
sustained  the  appeals  taken  against  decisions  that  were  not 
in  accordance  with  the  really  liberal  Association  laws. 

The  Reformed  Church  in  the  i^rovince  of  Austria  is  a  Ger- 
man church,  having  its  congregations  in  the  cities  of  Vienna, 
Laybach,  Bregenz,  and  Trieste. 

The  Bohemian  Church  has  four  Senior ates — CasJav, 
Prague,  Podebrad,  and  Chrudim.  It  has  under  its  care  a 
college  for  training  teachers,  with  three  professors  and  forty 
students.  There  are  also  in  connection  with  it  forty-two  con- 
gregational day-schools,  with  forty-nine  teachers  and  nearly 
fom-  thousand  pupils. 

The  Moravian  Church  has  two  Senitorates — Eastern  and 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  253 

Western.     The   Lord's  Supper  is  generally  observed  four 
times  a  year. 

Tlie  Hungarian  Church  has  five  superintendencies  of 
Provincial  Synods — Trans-Danubian  (Komorn)  (^is  Danubian 
(Buda  Pest)  Trans-Theissian  (Debreczen),  Cis-Theissian 
(Miskolcz),  and  the  Transylvanian  (Klausenburg) — with  min- 
isters and  elders,  members  in  equal  d  umbers.  These  super- 
intendencies are  independent  of  each  other,  and  liave  existed 
since  the  Eeformation. 

The  church  session  is  called  the  nonsistoriuni,  whose 
moderator  is  the  minister,  assisted  by  the  curator — cne  of 
the  elders  having  charge  of  the  tempon.l  affairs  of  the  con- 
gregation. Congregations  are  grouped  together  according 
to  the  limits  of  the  Seniorates  or  church  counties.  Of  the 
pastors  of  the  congregation  in  each  counhy  a  specific  num- 
ber are  elected — known  as  assessors — to  foj'm  the  Seniorate 
or  Presbytery,  which  has  always  its  two  presidents — the 
senior  and  cm-ator.  The  senior  is  always,  and  the  curator 
sometimes,  chosen  for  life.  Every  pastor  has  a  right  to 
attend  the  Seniorate  meeting,  and  to  speak,  but  the  assessors 
alone  vote.  A  group  of  Seniorates  form  a  superinteudenm/, 
whose  Assembly,  or  General  Convent,  resembles  a  Provincial 
Synod,  Its  members,  how^ever,  consist  only  of  delegates 
from  the  Seniorates,  along  with  the  superintendent  or  mod- 
erator and  the  general  curator.  Both  these  latter  are 
elected  to  their  office  by  the  vote  of  all  the  congregations  in 
the  superintendency,  and  hold  office  for  hfe.  Sometimes 
the  superintendent  is  styled  "  Episcopus,"  but  he  is  so  in  the 
Presbyterian  sense  of  being  primus  inter  ^^ares.  He  is 
also  the  medium  of  communication  between  the  government 
and  the  church. 

The  Hungarian  Church  has  in  connection  with  its  con- 
gregations 1,G02  elementary  day  schools,  but  in  which  re- 
ligious instruction  is  regularly  given ;  2,451  teachers  with 
182,993  pupils. 

In  1882  the  Hungarian  Church  adopted  a  constitution  by 
which  the  General  Asssmbly  consists  of  delegates,  94 
being  elected  by  church  sessions,  and  12  being  repre- 
sentatives of  the  colleges.  All  her  various  office-bearers  are 
now  chosen  b}^  the  ])eople,  except  the  superintendent  of 
Transylvania,  who,  in  virtue  of  old  laws,  is  appointed  by  the 


254  THE  people's  history 

Emperor.  The  Austrian  Emperor  must  still,  however,  sanc- 
tion church  legislation  before  it  is  valid. 

The  Missionary  Christian  Church  o;f  Belgium  has 
three  conseils  sectioiinaries,  or  Presbyteries,  meeting  in  one 
annual  Synod,  which  is  composed  of  a  minister  and  elder 
from  each  congregation,  and  the  members  of  the  executive 
committee.  Each  pastor  or  evangelist  in  charge  of  a  station 
is  also  a  member  of  the  Synod,  but  mthout  a  vote.  No 
member  can  take  his  seat  until  he  has  accepted  the  Belgic 
Confession  of  Faith.  The  Synod  appoints  annually  an  ex- 
ecutive committee,  with  a  general  secretaiy,  to  whom  is 
entrusted  the  oversight  of  the  work  of  the  church. 

The  Belgian  "  Union  of  Evangelical  Christians  "  con- 
sists of  a  number  of  congregations,  Walloons,  Germans,  and 
French,  all  receiving,  in  part,  suj)port  from  the  state. 

The  Walloon  Churches. — There  are  in  Holland  a  num- 
ber of  Walloon  congregations,  founded  by  Protestants 
driven  from  the  Walloon  provinces  of  Belgium  in  the 
time  of  Charles  V.'  These  congregations  were  assisted  for 
a  time  by  the  Huguenots  that  lied  from  France  on  the 
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  The  greater  part  of 
these,  however,  ultimately  became  merged  in  the  Holland 
population,  and  have  aided  in  building  up  the  Dutch  Ee- 
formed  Church  so  that  only  about  seventeen  Walloon 
congregations  exist  at  the  present. 

The  Reformed  Church  of  France  has  twenty-one  Provin- 
cial Synods,  consisting  of  the  ministers  and  elders  of  each 
five  Consistories  or  Presbyteries. 

According  to  the  decree  of  1st  December,  1871,  re-estab- 
lishing the  S}Tiods  of  the  Reformed  Church,  each  Consistory 
(Presbytery)  was  to  be  represented  by  one  minister  and  one 
elder  in  the  S^aiod  of  its  group.  By  this  delegated  Synod 
delegates  were  to  be  chosen  who  should  form  the  National 
Synod,  in  the  proportion  of  one  delegate  for  each  six  pastors ; 
these  delegates  to  be  ministers  and  elders  in  equal  numbers. 
This  National  Synod  met  in  1872  (the  last  previous  Synod 
had  met  in  1G60,  under  the  presidency  of  the  illustrious 
Daille,  adjourning  to  meet  within  three  years),  when  the 
doctiinal  differences  existing  in  the  church  at  once  led  to  the 
formation  of  two  well-defined  parties,  the  Liberals  and  the 
Evangelicals. 

As  the  Liberal  party  does  not  recognize  either  the  au- 


OF  PKESBYTERIANIRM.  255 

thority  or  the  necessity  for  the  existence  of  a  General  Synod 
{Synod  Officielle),  such  a  meeting  cannot  at  i^resent  be  held. 
The  Evangelical  section  has,  therefore,  organized  a  system 
of  S]/7iodes  Officieuses,  through  which  the  work  and  oversight 
of  their  congregations  are  carried  on.  These  Synods  have 
no  legal  authority,  while  connection  with  them  or  submission 
to  theii"  enactments  is  entirely  voluntary.  In  the  meantime 
they  are  rendering  invaluable  services  to  the  church,  and  in- 
creasing rapidly  in  influence  and  number  of  members. 

There  are  in  France  520  civil  parishes,  of  which  it  is  com- 
puted that  380  imite  in  these  Synodes  Officieuses,  while  there 
are  some  120  other  congregations,  all  of  which  also  adhere. 
The  larger  number  of  these  latter  congregations  are  aided 
by  the  Societe  Centrole  d Evangelization..  Of  the  690  min- 
isters in  actual  service,  about  500  adhere  to  the  Synodes 
Officieuses. 

Union  of  the  Free  Evangelical  Congregations  of  France. 
— The  S;)^iod  meets  every  second  year,  and  deliberates  on  the 
several  interests  of  the  churches.  It  receives  a  report  from 
every  church ;  administers  by  committees  the  christian 
operations  of  which  it  has  charge ;  it  has  a  central  fund  for 
the  general  expenses  of  the  church  and  the  aid  of  the  poorer 
congregations ;  it  regulates  the  theological  studies  of  aspir- 
ants to  the  ministry;  holds  fellowship  with  other  churches 
in  France  and  out  of  it;  apj)oints  delegates  to  visit  the 
churches  yearly,  and  adjudicates  on  difficult  questions  which 
the  churches  concerned  have  voluntarily  submitted  to  it,  and 
appoints  a  synodal  commission  for  executive  purposes  dur- 
ing the  interval  of  its  meetings. 

The  students  are  sent  to  the  Oratoire  of  Geneva,  or  to  the 
Faculte  Libre  of  Lausanne.  Theu'  number  varies  from  ten 
to  twelve,  and  they  are  supported  while  studying  b}-  the 
Commission  des  Etudes. 

Free  Evangelical  Church  of  Germany  consists  of  a  single 
Presbytery.  This  is  composed  of  one  minister  and  one  elder 
fi'om  each  congregation  and  one  elder  for  the  Diaspora.  It 
meets  twice  each  year,  possessing  two  congregations  in  Si- 
lesia and  one  in  Bohemia.  This  church  is  a  secession  from 
the  state  chm'ch  of  Prussia  that  took  place  in  1860.  The 
Bohemian  congregation  consists  chiefly  of  converted  Roman- 
ists. 

Reformed  Synodical  Union  of  the  East  Rhine  consists  of 


256  THE  people's  histoky 

one  Presbytery,  called  a  Synod.  This  Bavarian  Reformed 
Synod  uses  the  Heidelberg  Cathechism  as  its  doctrinal  sym- 
bol, while  the  French  churches  at  Erlangen,  Wilhemsdorf, 
and  Schwabach  use  in  addition  the  Rochelle  Confession  and 
the  French  Disciphne. 

The  names  of  the  parishes  are  the  French  Reformed 
church  of  Erlangen,  with  annex  of  German  Reformed 
church  of  Erlangen  ;  Reformed  Church  of  Nuremberg,  with 
annex  of  Schwabach ;  Reformed  churches  of  Baireuth, 
Gronenbach  and  Herbishofen  in  Suabia,  and  of  Marien- 
heim  on  the  Danube. 

Synod  0/  the  United  Hanoverian  Church  consists  of 
120  congregations. 

The  Waldensiaji  Church  consists,  strictly  speaking,  of 
the  seventeen  parishes  in  the  valleys,  all  the  other  congre- 
gations in  Italy  being  the  result  of  evangelistic  work  and 
standing  on  a  different  footing.  The  Synod  meets  annually 
in  September,  and  is  composed  of  all  the  ministers  on  the 
roll,  two  lay  deputies  from  each  of  the  seventeen  parishes 
and  the  lay  members  of  the  different  church  committees. 
There  are  no  Presbyteries,  properly  so  called,  but  in  their 
place  are  five  District  Conferences,  held  annually  in  the 
mission  field,  with  two  Free  Conferences  in  the  valleys. 
The  government  of  the  church  is  Presbyterian,  there  being- 
Sessions,  Conferences,  Synod  or  Synodal  Commission  or 
Table,  with  the  peculiarity  that  only  the  male  comnuuii- 
cants  over  twenty-five  years  of  age  are  reckoned  as  members 
of  the  church. 

Attention  has  lately  been  called  to  the  llcformed  (Jhurch 
of  the  Orisons  (Rhetica  Confessio,  1558),  and  more  es- 
pecially to  that  portion  of  it  which  consists  of  Italian  con- 
gregations. These  are  six  in  number,  with  nearly  8,000 
members,  and  while  tracing  back  their  history  only  to  the 
lieformation,  yet  as  the  Reformed  doctrine  came  to  them 
not  from  the  S\viss  or  the  German  movement,  but  from  the 
Italian,  their  sympathies  are  strongly  with  the  Waldensian 
Church.  For  an  interesting  sketch  of  these  congregations, 
see  (Jiitholic  Preshyttrian,  December,  1888. 

The  Free  Christian  Church  in  Italy  is  the  fruit  of  a 
variety  of  agencies  and  labors.  It  has  no  Presbyteries, 
but  holds  an  annual  General  Assembly,  composed  of  from 
one  to  three  delegates  from  each  congregation. 


OF  niESBYTErJANISM.  257 

Tlie  Christian  llefornied  Ghnrrh  of  the  Netherlands  lias 
ten  annual  Assemblies  or  Provincial  Synods,  with  one 
triennial  General  Synod,  composed  of  seventy-four  persons 
— two  ministers  and  two  elders  from  each  Assembty  and 
four  deputies. 

The  average  number  of  elders  is  four  in  each  congrega- 
tion. The  Consistory  or  Session  takes  charge  also  of  the 
temporal  affairs  of  the  congregation,  one  of  their  number 
called  the  Kerk  raad  acts  as  trustee  and  takes  charge  of 
the  church  buildings. 

The  Old  Reformed  Church  of  Bentheiin  and  East- 
Friesland  consists  of  one  Presbytery,  composed  of  the  min- 
ister and  elder  from  each  congregation  (two  elders  if<  there 
be  no  pastor).  Five  of  the  congregations  are  in  Bentheim 
and  foiu'  in  East-Friesland. 

This  chiuTh  is  a  secession  from  the  national  church,  and 
is  in  friendly  relations  with  the  Christian  Reformed  Church, 
to  w^hose  mission  agencies  it  contributes. 

The  Spanish  Christia7i  Church  has  two  Presbyteries — 
Madiid  and  Seville — with  a  General  Assembly  consisting 
of  a  moderator,  president,  vice-president,  two  vocals  and  a 
general  permanent  secretary. 

The  Reformed  Churches  of  Sioitzerland. — The  whole 
population  of  Switzerland  in  1880  was  2,846,102,  of  which 
number  there  were  1,160,782  Eoman  Catholics,  also  10,838 
adherents  of  minor  sects,  and  7,873  Jews.  The  adherents 
of  the  Reformed  Church  numbered  1,667,109,  a  majority  of 
the  whole  population.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  Re- 
formed belong  to  chm'ches  established  by  the  government, 
though  there  are  free  churches  in  Geneva,  Vaud  and  Neu- 
chatel.  The  details  of  church  life  are  regulated  by  the 
local  authorities  of  each  canton,  or  state,  in  the  Republic, 
subject  to  a  federal  constitution  adopted  in  1874,  to  which 
all  the  cantons  are  requii-ed  to  conform.  Perfect  liberty  of 
conscience  is  guaranteed  to  all,  and  no  one  is  called  upon  to 
pay  taxes  to  support  a  church  to  which  he  does  not  belong. 
All  religions  are  allowed  free  exercise,  within  the  limits  of 
public  order  and  morality.  The  Jesuits  are  forbidden  to 
enter  the  cantons,  on  the  ground  that  they  are  inimical  to 
the  peace  of  the  Republic.  The  w^orship  of  the  Reformed 
churches  is  characterized  by  extreme  plainness  and  simpli- 


258  THE  people's  histohy 

city.  The  people  are,  as  a  rule,  intelligent,  thrifty  and 
moral. 

llie  Preshyterian  Church  of  Emjland  has  one  Synod, 
meeting  annually  in  April,  and  composed  of  all  ministers  in 
charge,  pastors  emeriti,  foreigD  missionaries  of  the  church, 
the  theological  professors,  the  general  secretai'y,  with  a  rep- 
resentative elder  from  each  congregation. 

The  report  of  the  Statistical  Committee  of  the  Enghsli 
Presb}"terian  Synod  states  that  the  church  consisted  in  1886 
of  286  congregations  and  61,  781  communicants,  giving  an 
average  of  216  each.  In  1876  there  were  258  congregations 
and  50,739  was  the  number  of  commimicants,  or  an  average 
of  196  each.  Most  of  the  congregations  had  large  and  com- 
modious buildings,  and  many  also  had  schools  and  manses, 
freeholds  and  leaseholds,  and  they  were  insured  for  the  col- 
lective amount  of  £940,000.  There  were  debts  upon  them 
amounting  in  all  to  £102,939,  as  against  £108,310  in  1885. 
The  number  of  communicants  admitted  for  the  first  time  in 
1886  was  3,600,  compared  with  4,171  in  the  previous  year : 
whilst  the  number  lapsed,  dead,  and  from  other  reasons  re- 
moved from  the  roll  was  3,5()9,  against  3,724  in  1885.  The 
church  had,  in  1886,  2,116  district  visitors,  4,855  members 
of  Dorcas  societies,  7,210  Sabbath-school  teachers,  having 
charge  of  75,794  scholars,  7,518  scholars  in  day-schools, 
4,625  members  of  yoimg  men's  societies,  and  7,583  mem- 
bers of  the  Bible  classes.  The  total  receipts  of  the  church 
were  £206,533. 

The  General  Assembly  of  the  Preshyterian  Church  in 
Ireland  meets  annually  in  June,  and  is  composed  of  all  min- 
isters having  charges,  and  assistant  ministers  of  congrega- 
tions. Assembly's  professors  being  ministers,  ordained  mis- 
sicmaries,  and  chaplains  in  the  service  of  the  church,  and  one 
elder  from  each  congregation. 

Tfie  General  Synod  of  the  Reformed  Preshyterian  Church 
in  Ireland  has  four  Presbyteries,  Northern,  Southern,  East- 
ern, and  Western,  with  one  General  Synod  comj^osed  of  all 
ministers  on  the  roll  with  or  without  charge,  and  one  elder 
from  each  congregation.  It  has  one  congregation  in  Liver- 
pool and  one  in  Geelong,  Australia,  and  is  in  friendly  corres- 
pondence with  the  Synod  of  the  Eeformed  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  United  States  of  America. 

The  Eastern  Synod  of  the  lief ormed  Preshyterian  Church 


OF  PRESBYTERIANIBM.  259 

in  Ireland  is  in  friendly  correspondence  with  the  General 
Synod  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  in  North 
America. 

Synod  of  the  Secession  Church  in  Ireland  meets  in  July, 
and  co-operates  in  Foreign  Mission  work  with  the  Original 
Secession  Church  in  Scotland. 

Tlie  General  Asserahly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  {Es- 
tablished) meets  m  May.*  There  are  1,290  parish  churches, 
with  153  others.  The  number  of  communicants  is  515,786. 
There  are  84  Presbyteries  and  16  Synods. 

The  Presbyterian  principle  of  government  by  representa- 
tive assemblies  is  elaborated  in  a  pyramidal  system  of  ecclesi- 
tical  courts,  which  have  been  models  for  nearly  all  Presbyte- 
rian churches  in  the  English-speaking  world.  The  impor- 
tance attached  to  these  courts  may  be  understood  from  a 
stoiy  about  the  Eev.  Doctor  Calamy,  of  London,  and  an  old 
Scottish  lady  who  was  on  a  visit  to  the  metropohs.  She  was 
urging  upon  Dr.  Calamy  the  request,  born  of  maternal  soH- 
citude,  that  he  would  look  after  the  spiritual  welfare  of  her 
son,  who  had  made  his  home  in  a  place  so  benighted  as  Lon- 
don. "Why,"  said  Calamy,  "what  is  your  fear?  We  in 
England  have  the  same  Scrii^tures  as  you  have,  we  beheve  in 
the  same  Saviour,  and  we  insist  as  much  as  you  do  upon  all 
holy  living."  The  old  lady  replied:  "All  that  may  be  very 
true;  but  you  have  no  Kirk  sessions,  Presbyteries,  Synods, 
and  General  Assembhes." 

The  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  because 
of  its  relation  to  the  state,  has  not  only  a  moderator  to  pre- 
side over  its  dehberations,  but  a  representative  of  the  throne, 
called  the  Lord  High  Commissioner,  who  attends  in  his  offi- 
cial capacity,  accompanied  by  the  pomp  and  circumstance  of 
royalty.  In  addition  to  the  commissioners  sent  to  the  Gene- 
ral Assembly  by  the  Presbyteries,  there  are  also  representa- 
tives present  from  the  universities  and  from  the  royal  burghs, 
or  ancient  municipalities. 

The  General  Assembly  of  the  Free  Church  of  Srothmd 
meets  in  May.  It  has  73  Presbyteries,  16  Synods,  and  315,000 
communicants.  The  Assembly  consists  of  730  members,  half 
being  ministers  and  half  ruhiig-elders,  and  all  appointed  by 
the  Presbyteries.  Each  Presbytery  returns  one- third  of  its 
mmisters,  and  an  equal  number  of  ruling-elders.  The  Free 
Church  has  the  same  creed,  government,  and  worship,  as  the 


200  THE  people's  history 

Established  and  United  Presbj'terian.  Its  ministers,  elders, 
deacons,  and  probationers,  subscribe  the  Confession  of  Faith, 
and  they  signify  their  approval  of  the  general  principles  con- 
tained in  the  Claim  of  Eight  of  1842,  and  Protest  of  Commis- 
sioners to  the  General  Assembly  in  1843.  The  temporal 
aftairs  of  each  congregation  are  managed  by  a  body  called 
"  The  Deacxnis'  Court."  This  coiu-t  is  composed  of  the  min- 
ister, the  ruling  elders,  and  a  body  of  deacons,  chosen,  like 
the  elders,  by  the  members  of  the  congregation.  The  spir- 
itual interests  of  each  congregation  are  attended  to  by  the 
kirk-session,  consisting  only  of  the  minister  and  elders. 

The  Synod  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scot- 
land.— The  United  Presbj^terian  Church  has  as  its  surbordi- 
nate  standards,  the  Confession  of  Faith  and  Catechisms, 
with  the  same  form  of  government  and  worship  as  the  Estab- 
lished Church.  Ministers,  elders,  and  probationers  give 
their  adherence  to  the  Westminster  Confession  and  the 
Larger  and  Shorter  Catechisms,  with  a  reservation  as  to 
what  "teaches,  or  is  supposed  to  teach,  compulsory  or  perse- 
cuting and  intolerant  principles  in  religion."  The  church 
has  ruling-elders,  sessions,  and  presbyteries,  but  instead  of 
a  General  Assembly,  its  supreme  court  is  a  Synod,  composed 
of  the  ministers  having  charges,  and  one  elder  from  eocli  ses- 
sion. The  temporal  affau's  of  each  congregation  are  attended 
to  by  a  body  of  managers  chosen  b}^  the  members. 

The  Synod  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Scotland  is  composed  of  all  ordained  ministers  and  one  elder 
from  each  congregation.  It  has  31  Presbyteries,  and  170,297 
communicants. 

TJie  Synod  of  the  United  Original  Secession  Church  of 
Scotland  has  four  Presbyteries  in  Scotland,  and  two  in  Ire- 
land, with  a  Synod  composed  of  all  ministers  having  charges 
and  one  elder  from  each  congregation. 

The  C(dvinistic  3Ie(hodist  or  Presbyterian  ChurcJi  of 
W<des  has  twenty-four  Monthly  Meetings  (Presb>i;eries),  and 
two  Quarterly  Associations  (Synods),  one  for  North  Wales, 
consisting  of  14  Presbyteries,  and  the  other  for  South  Wales, 
w  itli  ten  Presbyteries ;  each  has  power  to  decide  an  appeal 
on  all  questions  within  its  own  limits. 

The  General  Assembly  meets  annually,  and  is  composed 
of  representatives  (two  ministers  and  two  elders)  from  each 
Presbytery,  ex  officio  presidents,  members  of  committees  and 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  201 

the  officers  of  the  two  Quarterly  Associations.  As  the  church 
is  not  yet  fully  organized  according  to  strict  Presbyterian 
principles,  and  to  some  extent  itinerancy  continues  to  exist, 
it  is  impossible  to  say  how  many  of  the  ministers  reported  as 
"  in  service  "  are  in  permanent  charge  of  congregations.  The 
majority  of  the  Sal^bath-school  attendance  consists  of  adults, 
so  that  nearly  all  the  classes  are  Bible  classes. 

The  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
United  States  of  America  (Northern)  meets  annually,  in 
May.  Of  its  S;vTiods  some  are  general  and  others  delegated 
bodies,  and  each,  as  a  rule,  conterminous  with  a  particular 
state.     The  eldership  is  a  life  office,  with  term-service. 

The  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
ZTnited  States  (Southern)  meets  annually,  in  May,  and  is  com- 
posed of  one  minister  and  one  elder  from  each  Presbytery 
having  fewer  than  twenty-live  ministerial  members,  and  dou- 
ble that  number  if  more  than  twenty-four.  There  is  no  tenn- 
service  for  any  of  its  officers. 

T/i,e  Reformed  Church  in  America  (formerly  Dutch  Re- 
formed) has  one  General  Synod,  meeting  annually  in  June, 
and  is  composed  of  three  ministers  and  three  elders  from 
each  classis,  nominated  by  the  classis  but  elected  by  the  par- 
ticular Synod. 

Tlie  Christian  Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States  of 
America  is  a  secession  (in  1857)  from  the  Reformed  Church 
in  America,  and  is  in  friendly  relations  with  the  Christian 
Reformed  Church  of  Holland. 

General  Sy7iod  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  the  United 
States  (formerly  German  Reformed)  meets  triennially  in 
May,  while  its  Provmcial  (District)  Synods,  of  the  United 
States,  of  the  Northwest,  of  the  East  and  Central  German, 
and  of  Ohio,  Pittsbui'gh,  and  the  Potomac  (English  speak- 
ing), meet  annually.  The  eldership  is  a  hfe  office,  but  its 
incumbents  serve  for  only  two  years.  At  the  close  of  that 
term,  they  may  be  chosen  again  for  service,  but  without 
ordination,  by  the  congregation.  When  not  in  service,  the 
Consistory  may  call  them  into  its  meetings  for  counsel. 

The  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of 
North.  America  meets  annually,  in  May,  and  consists  of 
commissioners  from  Presbyteries  in  the  ratio  of  one  min- 
ister and  one  elder  for  each  seven  ministerial  members  of 


262  THE  people's  history 

the  Presbytery.  This  church  has  one  Presbytery  iu 
Canada. 

The  Synod  of  the  Associate  ChurcJi  is  in  friendly  corres- 
pondence with  the  Original  Secession  Church  of  Scotland. 

The  Synod  of  the  Associate  Reformed  Church  of  the  South 
meets  annually,  in  October,  and  is  composed  of  all  ordained 
ministers,  and  one  elder  from  each  ministerial  charge.  It  is 
in  fi-iendly  relations  with  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  of 
North  America. 

The  General  Synod  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian 
Church  in  NortJt  America  meets  annually,  in  May,  and  is 
composed  of  delegates  from  the  Presbyteries. 

The  Synod  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Ch-rch  in  the 
United  States  of  North  America  meets  annually,  in  May,  and 
consists  of  all  ordained  ministers  connected  with  the  church, 
and  one  elder  from  each  organized  congregation. 

The  General  Assembly  of  the  ^Velsh  Calvinistic  Metho- 
dist, or  Presbyterian  Church,  JJ.  S.,  meets  annually,  in 
August,  and  consists  of  two  ministers  and  two  elders  fi'om 
each  S;yTit)d,  the  ex-moderator,  the  treasurer  and  the  secre- 
tary of  the  board  of  missions,  and  those  appointed  to  read 
]mpers  on  prescribed  subjects. 

This  church  stands  in  very  intimate  relations  ^yith  the 
Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist  Church  of  Great  Britain. 

The  General  Assembly  of  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian 
Church  meets  annually,  in  May,  and  consists  of  one  minister 
and  one  elder  from  each  Presbytery,  and  of  two  ministers 
and  two  elders  if  the  Presbytery  contains  more  than 
eighteen  ministers. 

The  Synod  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church  in  South 
Africa  origmated  in  Cape  Colony,  where  it  is  still  by 
statute  recognized  as  the  established  church,  though  since 
1875  receiving  no  financial  su23port  from  the  state.  For 
leyal  purposes,  therefore,  onl^^  the  congregations  in  the  col- 
ony fonn  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church,  though,  for  all  eccle- 
siastical purposes,  the  congregations  in  the  other  provinces 
of  Natal,  the  Orange  Free  State,  and  the  Transvaal  are  as- 
sociated with  them  in  forming  one  church,  with  a  Synodical 
CV)mmission,  consisting  of  the  moderator,  the  assessors,  the 
actuaries,  the  scribe,  and  sixteen  other  members. 

The  churches  in  the  colonies  of  Cape  Colony  and  Natal 
meet  annualty  in  a  provincial  Sjiiod,  while  the  four  Presby- 


OF  rKESBYTEKIANISM.  263 

tcries  (Northern,  Southern,  Eastern  and  Western  lUiu/shes- 
turen,)  of  the  Republic  of  Orange  Free  State  also  meet  an- 
nualty  in  a  Synod  composed  of  all  the  ministers  and  one  elder 
from  each  congregation. 

The  statistics  include  all  those  of  the  Synods  or  branches 
of  the  church  in  Cape  Colony,  Natal,  the  Orange  Free  State 
and  the  Transvaal. 

The  Christian  Reformed  Church  of  South  Africa  is  in 
ecclesiastical  sympathy  with  the  parent  chiu'ch  in  the  Nether- 
lands. 

The  SynoiJ  of  the  JJutcJi  Reformed  Church,  Orange  Free 
State,  has  four  Classes  or  Presbyteries  (North,  South,  East, 
and  West),  and  one  Synod,  composed  of  all  ordained  minis- 
ters and  one  elder  from  each  congregation. 

The  Synod  of  the  Preshyterian  Church,  of  Eastern  Au- 
stralia meets  annually,  in  October,  and  is  composed  of  all 
pastors  and  one  elder  from  each  congregation,  together  with 
the  theological  professors. 

Tlie  General  Assembly  of  the  Preshyterian  Church  in 
New  South  Wales  meets  annually,  in  March,  and  consists  of 
all  ministers  in  charge,  Avith  one  elder  from  each  congrega- 
tion and  the  theological  professors. 

7%e  Genercd  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Queensland  meets  annually,  and  consists  of  all  ministers  in 
charge,  with  one  elder  from  each  congregation. 

The  Presbyterian  Church  of  South  Australia. 

The  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Victoria  meets  annually  in  November,  and  consists  of  all 
ministers  in  charge,  pastors  emeriti,  and  one  elder  froni  each 
congregation. 

Presbytery  of  West  Australia. 

Presbytery  of  Tasmania. 

Presbytery  of  the  Free  Church  of  Tasmania. 

An  important  movement  has  for  some  time  been  in  pro- 
gress for  the  pm-pose  of  uniting  all  the  sections  of  Presbyte- 
rianism  in  the  Austrahan  colonies  into  a  federal,  if  not  or- 
ganic, imion. 

The  Genercd  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
New  Zealand  meets  annually  in  Februars^  and  consists  of 
all  ministers  in  charge,  with  one  elder  fi'om  each  congTega- 
tion. 

The  Synod  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Otago  and 


264  THE  people's  history 

Southland  meets  annually,  in  January,  and  consists  of  all 
ministers  in  charge,  pastors  emeriti,  the  theological  profes- 
sors, and  one  elder  as  representing  each  congregation,  but 
who  need  not  be  a  member  of  its  session. 

The  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
Canada  meets  annuallj^,  in  June,  and  consists  of  one-fom*tli 
of  the  ministerial  members  on  the  roll  of  the  Presbytery  and 
an  equal  number  of  elders. 

/Sy7iod  of  the  Presbyteriaii  Church  of  Canada  in  con- 
nexion with  the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  the  Synod  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland  in  Nova  Scotia,  etc.,  etc.,  consists  of 
congregations  and  ministers  that  did  not  concur  in  that  union 
movement  which  resulted,  in  1876,  in  the  formation  of  the 
present  Presb}iierian  Church  in  Canada. 

In  Prince  Edward  Island  there  are,  it  is  said,  8,000  people 
known  locally  as  "  Macdonaldites,"  adhering  to  the  Church 
of  Scotland.     There  is  also  one  congregation  in  Cape  Breton. 

The  Synod  of  Jamaica  is  the  first  Presbyterian  Church 
on  mission  ground  that  has  become  self-governing.  The 
mission  was  commenced  in  1824,  and  now,  though  still  re- 
cei^dng  the  larger  part  of  its  financial  support  and  ministerial 
supply  from  the  United  Presbyterian  Chm'ch  of  Scotland,  is 
independent  of  its  control.  It  possesses  a  theological  hall 
for  the  education  of  its  own  ministers,  and  has  already  sent 
several  of  these  to  the  Old  Calabar  Mission  in  West  Africa. 

Greece. — Dr.  Kalopothakes,  missionary  for  many  years  in 
Greece  fi'om  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States 
(Southern),  has  organized  the  fruits  of  his  labors  into  "The 
EvangeHcal  Church" — Elh^n/.f,  EmrcYzh/.r^  ' Iv/./.h^fjia.  This 
body  has  been  formed  into  a  local  Synod — To-i/.r^  l^w^odo^^ — 
Presbyterian  in  constitution,  and  consists  of  three  Greek  or- 
dained evangelists,  under  the  supervisi(jn  of  the  American 
Presbyterian  missionaries.  There  is  one  congregation  at 
Athens,  and  there  are  three  stations  not  yet  organized  as 
pastoral  charges.  There  are  in  actual  sei*vice  five  ministers, 
along  with  the  two  missionaries.  The  congregation  at 
xithens  has  two  elders  and  two  deacons.  There  is  one 
licentiate.  There  is  one  Sabbath-school  at  Athens,  with  sev- 
eral teachers. 

7'he  Free  Evangelical  Churcli  of  Geneva  is  the  result  of 
the  gTadual  growth  of  rehgious  hfe  and  belief,  more  conserva- 
tive and  bibhcal,  than  formerly  existed  in  Geneva.     It  con- 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM.  265 

sists  at  present  of  a  single  Presbytery,  with  three  congrega- 
tions, organized  in  accordance  with  our  pohty. 

Partial  Koll  or  the  Refoemed  Churches  in  Germany. 

Old  Reformed  Church  in  East  Friesland  and  Bentheim. 

United  Reformed  Church  in  the  Province  of  Hanover, — 
113  congregations,  with  more  than  50,000  adherents. 

Confederation  of  the  Reformed  Churches  in  Lower 
Saxony,  independent  of  the  state, — 7  congregations,  with 
2,000  commmiicants. 

The  Reformed  Church  of  Bremen, — 4  large  congregations 
in  the  city  of  Bremen,  with  several  others  in  the  districts  of 
Viqeseck  and  Bremer-haven,  under  the  control  of  the  chief 
magistrate  along  with  the  chief  ministers  of  the  city,  has 
50,000  adherents. 

The  Reformed  (Church  of  the  Princedom  of  lAppe- 
Detmold  has  50  congregations,  with  54  ministers  and  200,- 
000  adherents,  under  the  control  of  the  Prince's  Consistoiy 
at  Detmold. 

Tlie  Reformed  Church  of  Lower  Hesse  has  more  than 
200  congregations,  under  the  control  of  the  Boyal  Con- 
sistory at  Cassel.  These  congregations  have  elders,  hut 
there  are  no  Synods. 

IVte  Reformed  Clmrch  in  Westphalia  has  70  congrega- 
tions in  7  groups,  with  150,000  adherents,  has  elders  and 
Synods,  under  the  control  of  the  Royal  Consistory  at 
Munster. 

The  Reformed  Synod  of  Wesel  has  four  congregations, 
of  Dutch  and  French  origin. 

The  Reformed  Church  in  the  Rhine  Provinces  has  150 
congregations,  with  500,000  adherents,  under  the  control  of 
the  Royal  Consistory  of  Coblenz.  These  congregations,  as 
well  as  those  of  Westphalia  and  in  Prussia,  have  formed  a 
union  with  the  Lutherans,  but  mthout  giving  up  their  Re- 
formed Catechism,  discipline  or  order.  The  Emperor  and 
the  Imperial  family  are  themselves  members  of  the  Re- 
formed Church  and  adhere  to  its  creed.  The  union  in 
Prussia  has  not  been  absorbative,  as  it  has  been  in  other 
territories. 

The  Reformed  Church  Confederation  in  the  Province  of 
Saxo7iy  has  10  congregations,  12  ministers,  with  elders  and 


266  THE  people's  history 

Synods,    under   the   control    of  the    Eoyal    Consistory    at 
Madgeburg. 

The  Reformed  Church  in  Pomerania  has  7  congregations, 
with  7  ministers,  under  the  control  of  the  Eoyal  Consistory 
at  Stettin. 

The  Reformed  Churches  in  the  Procince  of  Silesia  has  0 
congregations,  with  11  ministers,  imder  the  control  of  the 
Iioyal  Consistor}'  at  Breslau. 

TJie  Free  Reformed  Clmrclies  of  Silesia. 

The  Reformed  Church  of  the  Province  of  Prussia  has  11 
congregations,  11  ministers,  and  possesses  elders  and 
S-\Tiods,  under  the  control  of  the  Royal  Consistory  of 
Konigsburg  and  the  superintendent  of  Tilsit. 

The  Reformed  Church  in  the  Province  of  Prandenhnrg 
has  more  than  20  congregations,  amongst  them  that  of  the 
Cathedral  of  Berlin,  in  which  the  Emperor  and  his  family 
worship,  under  the  control  of  the  Royal  Consistory  at  Bran- 
denbm-g. 

The  Church  of  the  French  Colony  in  the  Province  of 
Brandenburg  has  12  congregations,  4  at  Berlin,  with  elders 
and  Synods,  imder  the  control  of  the  Royal  Church  Direc- 
tor}^ at  Berlin. 

TJie  Reformed  Churches  of  the  Province  of  Posen  ;  5 
congregations;  6  ministers,  under  the  control  of  the 
Seniorate  at  Posen.  These  churches  are  the  remains  of 
the  Unitas  Fratrum  Polonice  et  Bohemia . 

The  Reformed  Churches  of  Fast  Bavaria  are  partly  of 
French  origin.  There  are  7  congregations  and  7  ministers, 
with  elders  and  Synods,  imder  the  control  of  the  Royal 
Protestant  Consistoiy  at  Munich. 

7V"0  French  Congregations,  under  the  Landgraviate  of 
Hesse-Homburg,  at  Frederickshof  and  East  Homburg. 

Single  congregations,  without  any  relation  to  other  Re- 
formed churches,  are:  The  Reformed  Churches  at  Altona, 
at  Hamburg  (a  German  and  French  one),  at  Accam  in  the 
territory  of  the  Grand  Duke  of  Oldenburg,  at  Frankfort  on 
the  Main  (a  German  and  a  French  one),  at  Leipsic,  at  Dres- 
den (two  ministers  to  each  of  the  two  latter),  at  Hanau  (a 
Dutch  and  a  French  one),  at  Elberfeld  (a  Dutch  congrega- 
tion), at  Blitzow,  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Mechlenburg,  at 
Stuttgart,  and  at  Osnabruck,  the  two  latter  being  very  poor, 
that  of  Osnabruck  not  havinof  even  a  minister. 


OF  PRESBYTERIANISM. 


207 


The  Reformed  Churches  of  Heidelberg  and  within  its 
neighborhood. 

The  Reformed  Churches  in  the  Bavarian  Palatinate,  con- 
sisting offoiu'-fifths  of  the  Protestant  churches  of  this  terri- 
tory. 

The  Reformed  Churches  in  the  Nassau  territory. 

The  Reformed  Churches  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  ITesse- 
Darmstadt. 

The  Reformed  Churches  in  the  Duchy  of  Anhalt. 

The  Reformed  Churches  in  the  Grand' Duchy  of' Ham 
Weimer. 

71ie  Reformed  Church  in  the  Kingdom  of  Poland. — Ten 
congregations,  with  G,000  adherents,  a  session  in  each  con- 
gregation meeting  in  an  annual  Synod. 


PRESBYTERIAN  AND  REFORMED  CHURCHES  ON  THE 
EUROPEAN  CONTINENT. 

In  the  statistical  retiTins  of  tlie  Cbnrches  on  the  Continent  given  in 
the  following  Tables,  it  will  be  noticed  that  in  cases  where  the  nnm- 
bers  of  communicants  and  adherents  are  both  given,  the  number  of 
adherents  is  about  one-third  larger  than  the  number  of  communicants ; 
therefore,  in  the  few  cases  where  only  the  adherents  are  given,  it  is 
thought  fair  to  arrive  at  the  numbers  of  communicants  by  subtracting 
one-third.  In  view  of  this  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  not  fair  to  multiply 
the  whole  number  of  communicants  throughout  the  world  by  four  to 
get  at  the  number  of  adherents ;  but  we  beheve  it  is  fair  as  to  the  gen- 
eral result,  because  in  English-speaking  countries  the  proportion  be- 
tween communicants  is  at  least  that  of  one  to  four,  and  though  the  pro- 
portion on  the  continent  of  Europe  is  that  of  two  to  three  in  the  reports 
to  the  Alliance,  these  reports  are  so  incomplete,  many  churches  not 
being  reported  at  all,  we  are  quite  sure  that  to  multiply  the  number  of 
communicants  reported  by  four  will  not  produce  as  large  a  result  as 
would  be  attained  by  such  thorough  statistical  returns  as  we  have  from 
the  churches  in  English-speaking  countries.  As  the  work  of  the  Alli- 
ance progresses  these  defects  will  no  doubt  be  remedied. 


26B 


THE  PEOPLE  S  HISTORY 


STATISTICAL   EETUKNS 

FROM  RRESBYTERIAN  AND  REFORMED  CHURCHES  THROUGH- 
OUT THE  WORLD. 

Amended  from  the  Report  of  the  Third  General  Council,  1884,  icith  ad- 
ditions to  some  oftlie  returns  of  the  Americam  GJmrches,  bringing  them 
down  to  the  year  1888. 


EUROPEAN  CONTINENT. 


[  The  ' '  General  Synod  of  the 
Reformed  Church  in  Aus- 
tria," consists  of  the  lirst 
four  independent  chnrches: 
Reformed  Church  in  the  Pro- 
vince of  Austria, 


-  Reformed  Church  in  the  Pro 

vince  of  Bohemia, 

Reformed  (.hurch  in  the  Pro- 
vince of  Moravia, 
Reformed     and    Evangehcal 
S   I      Church     of    the    Helvetic 

^^   [      Confession,    Hnngarj-, 

Union  of  Evangelical   Churches, 

]5elgium, 

Missionary  Christian  Church,  Bel 

gium,   .' 

The  Walloon  Cliurcli  in  Belgium 

and  the  Netherlands 

Reformed  ('hurch  of  France, 
Union   of   the   Free    Evangelical 

churches  of  France, 

Reformed  Churches   of   Switzer- 
land,   -- 

Reformed  Churches  of  Germany,  * 
Waldensian  Evangelical  Church,  _ 
Free  Christian  Church  in  Italj^.. 
Reformed  Church  of  the  Nether- 
lauds, 
Christian    Reformed    (Jhurcli    of 

the  Netherlands, 

Spanisli  ('hristian  Church, . . . 


57 


Totals  for  Enro])ean  Continent,    2(55 


lOf 


21 


44 


4 
47 
24 

1,980 


21 


G40 


4 
53 
24 

1,980 


14 


750 


10 


10 


50 


42 
32 

1,349 

379 
12 


4,004 


70 
10 

1,000 

29G 


5,242 


•  We  are  confident  that  these  figures  are  far  below  the  truth  as  to  the  strength  of 
the  Reformed  Church  in  Germany. 


OF  PKESBYTEKIANISM. 


269 


GREAT    BRITAIN    AND 
IRELAND. 

Presbyterian  Churcli  of  England, 
Church  of  Scotland  in  England, . 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland, . 
Eef ormed  Presbyterian  Church  of 

Ireland, 

Eastern    Eeformed    Presbyterian 

Church  of  Ireland, 

Secession  Church  of  Ireland, 

Church  of  Scotland, 

Free  Church  of  Scotland, 

United    Presbyterian   Church  of 

Scotland, 

Eeformed  Presbyterian  Church  of 

Scotland, 

United  Original  Secession  Church 

of  Scotland, 

Calvinistic  Methodist   Church  in 

Wales, 


Totals  for  G.  Brit,  and  Ireland. 


UNITED  STATES. 

Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 

States  of  America,  (Northern, ) 
Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 

States,  (Southern, ) 

Eeformed  Church  in  America, 

Christian    Eeformed    Church    in 

America, 

Eeformed  Church  in  the  United 

States, 

United  Presbyterian    Church   of 

North  America, 

Associate  Church  of  North  Amer. 
Associate  Eeformed  Church  of  the 

South, 

Eeformed    Presbyterian    Church 

in  North  America, 

Eeformed  Presbyterian  Church  in 

the  United  States  of  N.  Amer., 
Calvinistic    Methodist    or   Welch 

Pres.  Church  in  the  U,  S. , 

Eeformed    Presbyterian    Presby- 
tery of  Philadelphia, 


277 


201 

69 
33 

5 

54 

60 


270 

20 

554 

36 


11 
1,442 
1,023 

557 

9 

39 

819 


44    4,797 


6,437 

2,236 

547 

50 

1,481 

644 


72 

48 
124 
175 


264  61,781 

626        101,340 

26  4,734 


9 
1,480 
1,091 

600 

7 

32 

616 


1,750 

515,786 
315,000 

176,299 
1.120 
5,500 

122,107 


4,751     1,305.417 


5,654        696,827 


1,116 
547; 


802 
730 


150,398 
85,543 

6,800 

183,980 

91,086 


79 

37 

112 

84 


7,015 

6,800 

10,856 

9,563 


270 


THE  PEOPLE  S  HISTOKY 


United  States,  continued. 

It 

110 

as 

1 

Congre- 
gations. 

Ministers 
on  roll. 

Commu- 
nicants. 

Cuiaberlaiid  ricsbytciiiiu  Church 
iu  Aiiiericii,                _      _. 

27 

2,540 
500 

1,563 
200 

145, 146 

Colored  Cumberlaud  Presbyterian. 

13,000 

Total  for  United  States, 

BRITISH  COLONIES  AND 

DEPENDENCIES. 

Dutch  Reformed  Church  in  South 
Africa, . ._   

579 
11 

97 
2 

14,854 
140 

10,924 

1,407,014 

Christian    Eeformed    Church    iu 
South  Africa, . . 

Dutch  Reformed  Church  of  the 
Oramje  Free  State, 

I*i'esfri/tc)'i/  of  Ccvlon,    .   .   _   .   _ 

1 
4 

11 
4 
1 

12 
4 

1 
7 

5 
30 

3 

2 

1 

9 

11 

89 

33 

19 

164 

6 
12 

12 
152 

645 

Presbyterian   Church   of  Eastern 
Australia,  N.  S.  W., 

Presln'teriau  Church  of  New  South 
Wales,    ..         

273 

4,810 

Pres.   Church  of  Queensland,    _   . 

Presljytery  of  South  Australia, . .  _ 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Victoria, 
Presbvteriau  Church  of  Jamaica, 

1,515 
17,000 

8,405 

Prcsfiytery  of  West  Australia, 

Presbvteriau  Church  of  Tasmania, 

---- 

PrcHhyUry  of  the  Free  Church  of 
Tasmania, 

Presby.  Church  of  New  Zealand, 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Otago  and 
Southland, 

1 
4 

1 

1 

84 

54 
799 

24 

14 

77 

53 
693 

15 

12 

15,000 
8,667 

Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada, . 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Canada  in 

connection  with  the  Church  of 

Scotland 

119,608 

Church  of  Scotland  iu  Nova  Scotia, 
New  Brunswick,  and  the  adjoin- 
ing provinces, 

Totals  for  British  Colonies  and 
Dependencies. 

104 

10 

1,438 

1,148 

175,929 

Native      converts      in       Mission 
Church  is 

65,566 

(jrrand  Totals  for  the  world, . . . 

1225 

201 

25,693 

22,065 

8,894,546 

OF  PRESBYTERIANISM. 


271 


1 

GO 

m 
P 

o 

U.  p.  Ch.,  Scotland. 
Pres.  Ch.,  North,  U.  S. 
Pres.  Ch.,  North,  U.  S. 

-1- 

' 

U.  p.  Ch.,  Scotland 
Free  Ch.,  Scotland. 
Free  Ch  .  Scotland. 
Ch.  of  Scotland. 

Total. 

2528 

687 
174 
148 

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Sab'th 
School 
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dance. 

1634 

620 
655 
230 

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272 


THE  PEOPLE  8  HISTORY 


S 

0 

32 

1 

0) 

Kef.  Pres.  Ch.,  U.  S. 
Pres.  Ch.  North,  U.  S. 

Pres.  Ch.  North,  U.  S. 
<Kef.  Pres.  Ch.,  Scot'd. 

(    "            "         Ireland. 

Pres.  Ch.  of  England. 
Pres.  Ch.  of  Ireland. 

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150 
544 

1100 

80 

62 
523 

iii 

n  1 

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Livinf/stonia—  (Lake  Nyassa, )    

ASIA. 

^Si'tt  J/i'y/o/*-  Latakiyeh,  .  _  _ 

PersiVi— Presb.  of  Oroomiah, ' 

Syria — Synod  of  Syria,  formed  in 
1882,  and  consisting  of  the 
Presbytery  of  Beirut,  - 
Abieh, 
' '                Sidon,                 \- 
Tripoli,                j 
Zaleh,                 J 
Antioch. 

Central  Asia. 

/?i(:^M— Calcutta,   _ _ 

Pres.  of  Katiawar  and  Guja- 
rat,   

13    oJ"  o 


X  r-> 


OF  rRESBYTEKIANISM. 


273 


1111 

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23 


274 


THE  PEOPLE  S  HISTORY 


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OF  PEESBYTERIANISM. 


275 


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INDEX, 


Address  of  General  Assembly,  of 
Confederate  States,  of  America, 
to  churclies  tlironghout  the 
world,  208. 

Africa,  South,  Reformed  Churches 
of,  2(12,  263. 

Alliance  of  Presbyterifln  and  Re- 
formed Churches,  23"). 

Alva,  Duke  of,  07. 

American  Presbyterianism  after  the 
war,  2lf"i. 

Antrim,  Presbytery  of,  160. 

Appomattox  C.  H.,  Virginia,  21.5. 

Argyle,  Marquis  of,  134. 

Arminius,  98. 

Associate  Presbytery,  143. 

Associate  Reformed  Church,  U.  S. 
A.,  187. 

Auburn  Declaration,  11)3. 

Augusta.  Georgia,  206. 

Augustine,  Saint,  ">7. 

Austria  Reformed  Church  of,  241>. 

Australia,  164,  263. 

Barnes,  Dr.  Albert,  10  ". 
"Barrier  Act,"  120. 
Baxter,  Richard,  153. 
Beaton,  Cardinal,  108. 
Beecher,  Dr.  Lyman,  103. 
Belgium,      Missionary     Christian 

Church,  2a4. 
Belgium,    Union    of    Evangelical 

Churches,  254. 
Belfast,  158. 

Berkeley,  Sir  William,  182. 
Bermuda  Hundred,  1 82. 
Bohemia,  (50. 

Bohemian  Reformed  Church,  252. 
Bowes,  IVIarjory,  116. 
Bovd,  184. 


Breckenridge,  Dr.  Robert  J.,  193. 
Burghers,  144. 

Calabria,  41. 

Calvin,  John,  76. 

Calvinistic  Methodists,  155. 

Cameron,  Richard,  136. 

Cameronians,  136. 

Canada,  165,  264. 

Carrickfergus,  158,  160. 
'  Catherine  de  Medici,  00. 

Catechism,  Heidelberg,  98,  100. 

Catholicism,    Roman,    in   Europe, 
232. 

Catholicism,  Roman,  in  U.  S.  A. , 
231. 

Ceylon,  165. 

Chalmers,  145. 

Charles  IX.,  00. 
I  Christian  Reformed  Church,  U.  S. 
!      A.,  26 L. 

Chronology,  Presbyterian,  244. 

Civil  War,' in  IT.  S.  A.,  108. 

Clemens  Romanus,  27. 

Clement  YIIL,  40. 

Coligny,  00,  180, 

Columba,  48. 

Confession  of  Faith,  Westminister, 
133. 

Confederate   States,    General    As- 
sembly of,  206. 

Conference  committees,  225. 

Condc,  00. 

Cooke,  Dr.  Henry,  161. 

Covenanters,  128. 

Covenant,  National,  128. 

Covenant,    Solemn    League    and, 
j      131. 

Craig,  John,  128. 
I  Cranmer,  114,  116. 


282 


INDEX. 


Craw,  Paul,  106. 
Cromwell,  41. 
Culdees,  46,  105. 

Cumberland  Presbyterian  Chiirch, 
100,  262. 

Dark  Ages,  29. 

' '  Declaration  and  Testimony,  "217. 

Dedication,  8. 

Denominations,  10,  231  >, 

Denton,  Rev.  Richard,  183. 

Disruption  in  church  and  nation, 

11)6. 
Dort,  Synod  of,  !>8. 
Doughty,  Rev.  Francis.  182. 
Duffield,  Rev.  George,  189. 

Early  days  of  the  Christian  era, 

24. 
Edward  VI.,  116. 
Edwards,  Jonathan,  18"). 
Egypt,  1.^. 

Elizabeth  River,  183. 
England,  Presbyterianism  in,  1.50, 

2r,8.  i 

Erasmus,  9"). 
Erastiaus,  132. 
Erskine,  Ebenezer,  143. 

Farel,  76. 

Fisher,  Rev.  Samuel,  11)4. 

First  Book  of  Discipline,  120. 

Five  Million  Dollar  Fund,  222. 

Foreign  Mission  Statistics,  277,  etc, 

France,  87. 

France,  Reformed  Church  of,  2.')4 

France,  Union  of  Free  Evangelical 

Churches,  2.'>.'>. 
Francis  I.,  33. 
"Fraternal  Relations,"  223. 
Free  Church  of  Italy,  41. 
Free  Church  of  Scotland,  14.5. 

Geddes,  Jennie,  127. 

General  Assembly  (tirst),  IJ.  S  A., 
188. 

General  Assembly,  U.  S.  A. ,  (North- 
ern), 261. 

General  Assembly,  U.  S  ,  (South- 
ern), 261. 

Geneva,  76. 


Geneva,  Free  Evangelical  Church 
of,  2(54. 

General  survey,  249. 

General  Synod,  Paris,  89. 

Germany, Free  Evangelical  Church, 
2.5.5. 

German}^   Old  Reformed  Church 
cf  Bentheim,  etc.,  2;57. 

Germany,     Reformed     Sy  nodical 
Union  of  East  Rhine,  2.55. 

Germany,  Synod  of  United  Han- 
overian Church,  256. 

Germany,  partial  roll  of  Reformed  • 
Churches,  265. 

Gillespie,  George,  132. 

Greyfriars  Church,  129. 

Greece,  264. 

Gurley,  ijjso  facto,  217. 

Hamilton,  Patrick,  106. 
Hanover  Presbytery,  176. 
Hempstead,  182. 
Henry  IV.,  92. 
Henry  VIII.,  114. 
Henderson,  Alexander,  128. 
Hill,  Matthew,  182. 
Hippolytus,  27. 
Hodge,'  Charles,  202. 
Holland,  1)5. 
Huguenots,  89,  180. 
Himgary,  102,  253. 
Huss,  John,  (>1. 

Innocent  III.,  38. 

Institutes,  Calvin's,  78,  88. 

Irish    Presbyterianism,    157,    258, 

259. 
Italy,  Free  Christian  ('hnrch,  256, 
Italy,    Reformed    Church    of   the 

Grisons,  256. 

Jamaica,  264. 

Jamaica,  Long  Island,  183 

Josephus,  17. 

Kentucky  Synod,  216. 
King's  Confession,  128. 
Knox,  John,  110,  112. 

Laggan,  Presbytery  of,  183. 
Le  Fevre,  76. 


INDEX. 


283 


Lightfoot,  Bishop,  28. 

Log  College,  18:>. 

Lollards,  100,  1;")2. 

Londonderry,  l')*). 

Long  Islan(f  Presbytery,  IS."). 

Louis  XIV,  ;»3. 

Lutlier,  Martin,  G4. 

Maitland,  122. 

Makemie,  Francis,  174,  18;>. 

Marot,  Clement,  88. 

Mary  de  Medici,  ;>2. 

Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  121. 

Masson,  Pierre,  »0. 

McAdow,  191. 

McCosli,  James,  240. 

McGready,  James,  1J)0. 

Mecklenburg  Declaration,  17(5. 

Melville,  Andrew,  12(;. 

Michaelius,   18L 

Mission  cliurcbes,  271. 

Missouri  Synod,  218. 

Moravian  Reformed  Church,  252. 

Morel,  Francis,  8".». 

Morel,  George,  40. 

Netherlands,    Christian   Reformed 

Church,  2r)7. 
New  Amsterdam,  180. 
Newcastle  Presbytery,  185. 
"New  Side,"  185. 
New  York  City,  183. 
Noetus,  27. 
Norfolk,  184. 
NotQS,  249. 

Old    and    New    School    Division, 

192. 
"Old  School  Synod  of  Missouri," 

218. 
"Old  Side,"  185. 
Olivetan,  34. 
Origin  of  Presbyterianism,  9. 

Palmer,  B.  M.,  200. 
Patrick,  Saint,  157. 
"Patronage,"  142. 
Pelagianism,  58. 
Philip  II.,  96. 
Piedmont,  32, 
Pilgrims,  182. 


Philadelphia  Presbytery,  184. 

Philadelphia  Synod,  185. 

Pittsburg,  220. 

"Plan  of  Union,"  190,  192. 

Population  of  U.  S.  A.,  230. 

Poland,  101. 

Presbyterian  Church  and  its  sis- 
ters in  U.  S  ,  227. 

Presbyterian  Church  in  North 
America,  201. 

Presbyterianism,  Definition,  14. 

Presbyterian  principle  in  other 
churches,  19. 

Princeton  College,  18(;. 

Principal  denominations  in  U.  S. 
A.,  229. 

Puritans,   181. 

Reformed  Church  in  America 
(Dutch),  2iil. 

Reformed  Church  in  U.  S.  (Ger- 
man), 201. 

Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  of 
America,  180. 

Rehoboth,  183. 

Rehef  Church,  144. 

Remonstrants,  98. 

Reunion  of  Old  and  New  School 
churches,  219. 

Resby,  105. 

Rogers,  Dr.  John,  189. 

Rotterdam,  95. 

Rough,  John,  113. 

Rutherford,  Samuel,  132. 

Saint  Bartholomew's  Day,  90. 

Sanquhar,  135. 

Scotland,  104. 

Scotland,  Chiirch  of,  259. 

Scotland,  Free  Church,  259, 

Scotland,    Original    Secession 

Church,  200. 
Scotland,   Reformed  Presbyterian 

Church,  2H0. 
Scotland,  U.  P.  Church,  200. 
Servetus,  82. 
Secession  Church,  143. 
Shall),  Bishop,  135. 
Slavery,  197. 

Spanish  Christian  Church,  257. 
Spirit  of  Presbyterianism,  242. 


284 


INDEX. 


SuowHill,  183. 

Spring,  Dr.  Gardiner,  202. 

"Spring  llesolntions, "  202. 

Spnrgeon,  12!). 

Soutii  Africa,  IGa, 

Stanley,  Dean,  27. 

"States  Rights,"  lOG. 

Stark,  Helen,  109. 

Statistical  returns,  20S,  200,  270. 

Stewart,  Margaret,  124. 

Switzerland,    lleformed    Churches 

of,  2r.7. 
Synod  of  the  Associate  Reformed 

Church  of  the  South,  2«;2. 


Tennent,  Dr.,  185. 
Tetzel,  GO. 

Theological  Seminaries,  220. 
Thirty-nine  Articles,  110. 
Torre  Pellice,  83. 
Trent,  Council  of,  oO. 
Tyndale,  100. 
Twisse,  Dr.,  133. 


Ulster,  ir,9. 

United    Presbyterian    Church    of 

North  America,  187. 
United    Presbyterian    Church    of 

Scotland,  145, 


United  Svnod  of  the  South.   198, 

215. 
Universal  Presbyteriauism,  235. 

Vaudois  Missionary,  35. 
Virginia  Synod,  189. 

Waldenses,  32,  250. 

Waldo,  Peter,  34. 

Wales,    Presbyterianism    in,    155, 

200. 
Walloon  Churches,  Holland,  254. 
Washington,  George,  179. 
Welsh  Calvinistic  Church,    U.    S. 

A.,  202. 
Western  Reserve  Synod,  193. 
Westminster  Assemblv,  131. 
Whitaker.  Alex.,  182.' 
Whitefield,  George,  150,  1H5. 
Wicklifle,  151. 
William  and  Mary,  134. 
William  "the  Silent,"  90. 
Wishart,  George,  109. 
Witherspoon,  John,  175,  178,  189. 

Yeomans,  Dr.,  202. 
Yolande,  37. 

Zurich,  70. 
Zwingli,  09. 


Theologici)!  Seminary-Speer  Library 


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